Benutzer:Phoenyx 5/Transgeschlechtliche Personen im NS-Staat

Tens of thousands of books, including those taken from the Institute for Sexual Science, are burned in Bebelplatz Square on Vorlage:Date.

In Nazi Germany, transgender people were prosecuted, barred from public life, forcibly detransitioned, and imprisoned and killed in concentration camps. Though some factors, such as whether they were considered "Aryan", heterosexual with regard to their birth sex, or capable of useful work had the potential to mitigate their circumstances, transgender people were largely stripped of legal status by the Nazi state.

Under the German Empire (from 1871 to 1918) and Weimar Germany (from 1918 to 1933), laws such as Paragraph 183 existed which were used to prosecute transgender individuals; however, these laws were inconsistently enforced, often leaving transgender people vulnerable to the arbitrary decisions of individual police officers. In 1908, thanks to the advocacy of Magnus Hirschfeld, Germany instituted the ability for transgender people to obtain transvestite passes, which shielded them from legal consequences for being publicly transgender. From the end of World War I until 1933, transgender people enjoyed previously unprecedented freedoms and rights. Large leaps were made in transgender medicine through the Institute for Sexual Science, and transgender culture flourished in Berlin.

However, following the Prussian coup d'état in 1932 and the Nazi seizure of power in 1933, transgender movements, gathering places and institutions, such as the first homosexual movement, the Eldorado nightclubs, and the Institute for Sexual Science were dissolved, often by force. Both trans men and trans women were targeted under renewed enforcement of Paragraphs 175 and 183, and their transvestite passes were revoked or simply ignored. Books and texts relating to transgender experiences or medicine were destroyed as "un-German".

Transgender people were imprisoned and murdered in concentration camps, though the exact number killed is unknown. According to historian Laurie Marhoefer, "The Nazi state reserved its worst violence for trans women." According to the Museum of Jewish Heritage, the German government "brutally targeted the trans community, deporting many trans people to concentration camps and wiping out vibrant community structures."

Terminology

The German word transsexualismus (Vorlage:Literal translation, adapted into English as the term transsexual) was first coined in 1923 by Magnus Hirschfeld, but would not enter widespread use until 30 years later with the work of Harry Benjamin.Vorlage:SfnVorlage:Sfn The term transgender, an English-German cognate, was not coined until 1965 and not widely accepted as a universal term until the 1990s.Vorlage:Sfn Before that, the term transvestit (Vorlage:Literal translation, masculine) was used to refer to transfeminine individuals, and the term transvestitin (Vorlage:Literal translation, feminine) was used to refer to transmasculine individuals.Vorlage:Sfn In part because no alternative term was widespread, most Western transgender people of this time period self-identified as "transvestites".Vorlage:Sfn Modern literature on the subject largely uses the term "transgender" to refer to these individuals as a more accurate description of their gender identity.Vorlage:Sfn According to Joanne Meyerowitz and other scholars of the topic, it is difficult if not outright impossible to know what pronouns transgender or transvestite people in these times would have preferred, and as such it is common practice to simply use the pronouns which align with what is known of their gender presentation (i.e., he/him for individuals who present masculine, and she/her for individuals who present feminine).Vorlage:SfnVorlage:Sfn

Background

One of Berlin's famous Eldorado nightclubs, which often featured transgender performers and allowed crossdressing, displaying the slogan Hier ist's richtig! ("Here it's right!").

In the Weimar Republic, the government which ruled Germany from the end of World War I in 1918 until Adolf Hitler seized power in 1933, transgender people gained rights and freedoms unprecedented in Europe at the time, and much early progress was made in transgender medicine. The key figure in these advancements was Jewish-German physician and sexologist Magnus Hirschfeld, who founded both the Scientific-Humanitarian Committee in 1897—the main organization devoted to the decriminalization of homosexuality—and the Institut für Sexualwissenschaft (Institute for Sexual Science) in 1919. Other notable transgender rights activists of the period include Friedrich Radszuweit, a publisher and author who founded the Bund für Menschenrecht (Federation for Human Rights) to advocate for gay and transgender rights in 1920, and Max Spohr, a publisher among the first to print LGBT media.Vorlage:Sfn

Social situation

A transvestite pass issued to Gerd Katter by the Berlin Police in 1928.

Under the German Empire before World War I, there was no law which explicitly outlawed being transgender, unlike how Paragraph 175 explicitly outlawed male-male homosexuality.Vorlage:Sfn Paragraph 183 outlawed public crossdressing, which along with Paragraph 360 was sometimes used against transgender people; however, these laws could only be applied if a public nuisance was determined to have occurred.Vorlage:Sfn Additionally, in practice these laws could not be applied to transgender people who were able to pass as their preferred gender.Vorlage:Sfn These qualities often led to uneven enforcement of the laws, and openly transgender or gender-queer people in Germany lived under constant threat of legal charges at the whim of individual German police officers.Vorlage:SfnVorlage:SfnVorlage:Sfn In 1908, Hirschfeld discussed the matter with the Berlin Police, and convinced them to allow transgender people to obtain transvestite passes to avoid legal consequences for cross-dressing, one of the earliest known examples of legal recognition for transgender people.Vorlage:Sfn

In large part due to the less restrictive laws and LGBT-friendly culture of 1920s Berlin, known as the 'Golden Years',Vorlage:SfnVorlage:Sfn transgender culture began to flourish in the city, and Berlin became known as the queer capital of the world.Vorlage:SfnVorlage:Sfn In 1930, the world's first transgender magazine, Das 3. Geschlecht (The Third Gender), was published by Friedrich Radszuweit's publishing company in Berlin, as was Die Freundin (The Girlfriend), a lesbian magazine which would often publish articles for transgender women. In response to the advocacy of Hirschfeld and others of the first homosexual movement, the Weimar Republic even went so far as to permit legal name changes for transgender people.

Berlin was also notable in this period for its queer nightlife and transvestite cabaret clubs, the most recognized of which were the Eldorado clubs, but less famous venues such as the Mikado were also popular places to watch transgender performers.Vorlage:Sfn Eldorado was the name of at least five known clubs in Berlin which featured transgender performers, and were a popular gathering spot for Berlin's LGBT community, though heterosexual patrons were also welcome and common.Vorlage:Sfn The first of these clubs was opened in March 1924 by Ludwig Konjetschni, who went on to own three locations under the Eldorado name, at least two of which are known to have catered to gay audiences specifically.Vorlage:Sfn The Eldorado clubs were noted worldwide and drew international tourism to the city. Though the clubs were heavily concentrated in Berlin, other similar clubs featuring transgender performers are known to have existed in most major German cities during this period:

• Hannover: An Eldorado club, the only club known to use the Eldorado name outside Berlin, existed in Hannover in the early 1930s, however it closed after just six months of operation.Vorlage:Sfn
• Cologne: The DornröschenVorlage:Efn club featured transgender performers by the names of Tilla and Resi.Vorlage:Sfn
• Hamburg: Known to have some number of transgender-friendly entertainment venues.Vorlage:Sfn

Medical advancement

Bernhard Schapiro, Magnus Hirschfeld, and Li Shiu Tong in Berlin (early 1930s).

In addition to more widespread cultural acceptance, Berlin also became a hotbed for research into transgender medicine. The Institute for Sexual Science, located in Berlin, performed some of the first academic studies of transgender medicine,Vorlage:Sfn and is credited with performing some of the first gender affirming care, including hormone replacement therapy. Ludwig Levy-Lenz, Erwin Gohrbandt and other surgeons associated with the Institute performed gender affirming surgery, including early versions of facial feminization surgery and sex reassignment surgery on trans women, as well as facial masculinization surgery, chest masculinization surgery, and hysterectomy and oophorectomy on trans men.Vorlage:SfnVorlage:SfnVorlage:Sfn Dora Richter, the first transgender woman known to have received sex reassignment surgery, received it through the Insitute, as did Lili Elbe, Toni Ebel, Gerd Katter and many other notable transgender people of this period.Vorlage:SfnVorlage:SfnVorlage:Sfn Levy-Lenz is quoted as saying of his time at the Institute, "Never have I operated upon more grateful patients."Vorlage:Sfn

The Institute collected extensive data on the transgender condition through interviews, surveys and clinical studies, and its research was some of the first to differentiate gender identity from sexual orientation.Vorlage:Sfn In his research for the Institute, Hirschfeld referred to transgender people as "total transvestites" or "extreme transvestites" as early as the 1920s, notably differentiating them from crossdressers, as well as stating his believe that there naturally existed people who had "characteristics that did not fit into heterosexual or binary categories".Vorlage:SfnVorlage:Sfn The Institute was also one of the only employers who would hire openly transgender people, and would often hire transgender people in need of work as receptionists or maids; both Toni Ebel and Dora Richter are known to have found employment with the Institute in this way.Vorlage:Sfn

Early pushback

The homosexual movement and Institute for Sexual Science were frequent targets of conservatives such as the Nazi Party and both Catholic and Protestant churches, who accused the movements of "degeneracy", going against family values and promoting “un-German” ideas.Vorlage:SfnVorlage:Sfn A particular target of conservative ire were LGBT publications and magazines, which were grouped with pornographic magazines as "filth literature". Laws such as the 1926 Harmful Publications Act were pushed through by conservative movements to attempt to limit or regulate the contents of these publications.

Hirschfeld himself was also targeted both politically and in the press.Vorlage:Sfn After being physically attacked and beaten in Munich in 1921, a nationalist newspaper article celebrated, threatening that "the next time his skull might be crushed."Vorlage:Sfn In 1929, Der Stürmer depicted him in a cartoon by Philipp Rupprecht and attacked him for his ideas on sex, as well as his sexuality and Jewish background.Vorlage:Sfn

Ransacking of the Institut für Sexualwissenschaft

A member of the Sturmabteilung and a student examine materials taken from the personal library of Magnus Hirschfeld, the director of the Institute for Sexual Science, on Vorlage:Date, the day the Institute was raided and destroyed.

The beginning of the end for the Golden Years of Berlin occurred on Vorlage:Date, when Franz Von Papen orchestrated the 1932 Prussian coup d'état and took control of the Free State of Prussia as Reich Commissioner. Berlin was located in Prussia, and Papen, a conservative Catholic, began more strictly enforcing Paragraph 175 and other anti-homosexuality and anti-transvestitism laws in the region.Vorlage:Sfn Papen's government attempted to shut down presses printing "filth literature" altogether, though the courts were unwilling to cooperate with any attempted convictions, and the effort to shut down the publications was temporarily halted.Vorlage:Sfn

On Vorlage:Date, Adolf Hitler, the leader of the Nazi Party, came to power as Chancellor of Germany. His government cracked down on gay and trans movements within Germany. On Vorlage:Date, a group of students belonging to the National Socialist German Students' League, accompanied by a brass band, marched to the Institut für Sexualwissenschaft.Vorlage:Sfn After failing to find Hirschfeld,Vorlage:Sfn who was abroadVorlage:Sfn the students proceeded shout "Brenne Hirschfeld!" ("Burn Hirschfeld!") while ransacking and vandalizing the Institute, tearing pictures from the walls, pouring inkwells onto carpets, and destroying exhibitions while the band played outside.Vorlage:SfnVorlage:Sfn Some students posed for propaganda photos amidst the destruction.Vorlage:Sfn That afternoon, the Sturmabteilung (SA) arrived and systematically confiscated the Institute's materials, including thousands of books and documents from its library and archive.Vorlage:Sfn The only documents spared were the thousands of medical questionnaires collected by Hirschfeld, either because the Institute's staff managed to convince the SA that the documents were simple medical profiles, or because there were physically too many to carry out of the Institute.Vorlage:Sfn Dora Richter is believed by some to have been murdered in the attack, though the circumstances around her death remain uncertain.Vorlage:SfnVorlage:Sfn

The Institute was closed, and would never reopen.Vorlage:Sfn Four days later, on Vorlage:Date, as many as 25,000 of the institute's books, many of which contained unique insights into transgender history and medicine, were burned nearby in Bebelplatz Square.Vorlage:SfnVorlage:SfnVorlage:Sfn Hirschfeld remained in exile in France until his death in 1935, rather than return to Germany to face persecution as a gay, Jewish man.Vorlage:SfnVorlage:Sfn His image would be subsequently widely reproduced for use in Nazi propaganda, citing him as a prototypical Jew.Vorlage:SfnVorlage:Sfn Following the closure of the Institute, some of its staff, such as Ludwig Levy-Lenz (who was also Jewish), fled Germany for the safety of exile.Vorlage:Sfn However, a few of the Institute's former personnel, including Erwin Gohrbandt, turned to collaboration with the Nazi regime.Vorlage:Sfn Gohrbandt in particular joined the Luftwaffe as a medical advisor, and later contributed to human experimentation in the Dachau concentration camp,Vorlage:Sfn where transgender people like the ones he once treated are known to have been held as prisoners and murdered.Vorlage:SfnVorlage:Sfn

Nazi views on transgender people

Transgender women in Nazi Germany were treated as crossdressing men under the law and by law enforcement, and were often arrested tried under the same Paragraph 175 as homosexual men;Vorlage:SfnVorlage:Sfn however, Laurie Marhoefer notes that "Nazi officials did not simply think trans women were gay men."Vorlage:Sfn Bodie Ashton, a professor of German and LGBT history at the University of Erfurt, has similarly called the Nazi government's understanding of transgender people "broadly inconsistent", citing the case of trans woman Liddy Bacroff, where government individuals who worked with her largely described her in feminine terms and often with feminine grammar, despite the fact that they were interacting with her because she was being charged with the crime of being a homosexual man.Vorlage:Sfn

In many cases, transvestism was considered an aggravating factor in a homosexuality case, causing transgender women to face even harsher sentences than if they had been simply been considered homosexual men, though transgender people could face persecution even if Nazi authorities did not consider them to be homosexual.Vorlage:SfnVorlage:Sfn A widespread belief in Germany at this time held that transgender people were inherently deceitful, as they lived their lives "in disguise", which motivated some Germans to denounce their transgender neighbors to the Nazi government.Vorlage:Sfn

Transgender life under Nazi rule

Persecution

According to the Museum of Jewish Heritage, the Nazi government "brutally targeted the trans community, deporting many trans people to concentration camps and wiping out vibrant community structures."Vorlage:Sfn Transgender people (in particular male-to-female individuals) were often persecuted under the same Paragraph 175 which was widely used to target homosexuals, although there exist known instances of individuals being charged under Paragraph 183 alone, a public indecency law which was used as prohibition of cross-dressing.Vorlage:SfnVorlage:Sfn The Nazi government shut down several magazines published by transgender people, though some such as Das 3. Geschlecht had already ceased by 1933 following Friedrich Radszuweit's death in March 1932.Vorlage:Sfn Under Franz Von Papen's orders, in the summer of 1932, a series of raids had been carried out against gay, lesbian and transgender bars, and it was announced that these places would no longer be able to acquire dance permits.Vorlage:Sfn By early 1933, the Eldorado nightclubs are believed to have all shut down.Vorlage:SfnVorlage:Sfn Under Nazi rule, the vast majority of transvestite passes given to transgender people under Weimar rule were revoked, or in many cases simply ignored by the police.Vorlage:Sfn

Race also played a role in how transgender people were treated under the Nazi regime. According to historian Zavier Nunn, trans people could be spared the worst of the Nazi's violence if they were considered Aryan and not considered homosexual (i.e., they were exclusively attracted to the opposite of the sex assigned to them at birth). Furthermore, their circumstances could be mitigated if they were capable of useful work. Nunn provides of a particular case study of a transgender lesbian known as R., who the Nazis considered to be Aryan, non-homosexual and a good worker, who was arrested in 1938 but was released after two years in prison on the assumption that she would detransition. R. reneged, continuing her non-conformist behaviors, and in 1941 she was re-arrested. On Vorlage:Date, R. was transferred to the Berlin-Wittenau Medical Center to undergo conversion therapy so she could "become a functioning member of the Volksgemeinschaft". She remained in Wittenau until her death by suspected suicide on Vorlage:Date.

Imprisonment in concentration camps

Many transgender people were imprisoned and murdered in Nazi concentration camps, though it is unknown exactly how many were killed or died as a result of their mistreatment. In particular, as straight transgender women were viewed by the Nazis as a subset or variation of homosexual men—a sexuality whose manifestations in Germany the Nazis aimed to completely suppress—they were particularly targeted. Even in cases where transgender individuals were not killed or imprisoned in concentration camps, they were, with few exceptions, barred from being transgender in public life, and there is at least one recorded case of a transgender German being driven to suicide due to their forced detransition.Vorlage:Sfn Individual precincts and districts are also known to have taken specific action against transgender people; for example, on Vorlage:Date, the city of Hamburg issued a specific order to its police department to "observe the transvestites in particular, and as required to send them to concentration camps".Vorlage:Sfn

Historian Laurie Marhoefer has noted that "the Nazi state reserved its worst violence for trans women."Vorlage:Sfn A gay prisoner and survivor of the Dachau concentration camp named Kurt von Ruffin similarly recalled how "camp officials often treated trans people with particular contempt."Vorlage:Sfn Incoming transgender women to the camp would be stripped naked, and then "humiliated, insulted and beaten."Vorlage:Sfn On one occasion recalled by Ruffin, a transgender woman was brought to Dachau and forced to undress. Guards of the concentration camp then forcibly shoved her head into a dirty latrine until she drowned.Vorlage:Sfn

Lucy Salani was the only known Italian transgender person known to have survived imprisonment in the concentration camps, including the Dachau concentration camp. She died in 2023.Vorlage:Sfn At least one Austrian trans woman, referred to as Bella P., is known to have been imprisoned in a concentration camp after a sentence under a law targeting "unnatural fornication". Another trans woman, known only as "H. Bode" is known to have been killed in the Buchenwald Concentration Camp.Vorlage:Sfn

In one notable example, German transgender woman and sex worker Liddy Bacroff submitted a request for a 'voluntary' castration on Vorlage:Date, following an arrest for crossdressing and being on a date at a restaurant with a man.Vorlage:SfnVorlage:Sfn A repeat offender of German anti-homosexuality and anti-prostitution laws, including Paragraph 175, Bacroff requested "to be cured of my sick passion which has led me onto the path of prostitution".Vorlage:Sfn She was examined by Wilhelm Reuss, a medical examiner from the Hamburg Health Department, who concluded that "H.Vorlage:Efn is a transvestite to Vorlage:Sic core. Accordingly Vorlage:Sic entire habitus is feminine and infantile, the voice eunuchoid".Vorlage:Sfn He further speculated that castration would only embolden Barcroff, as she was never the penetrating partner in her sex work.Vorlage:Sfn Reuss's report was effectively a death sentence.Vorlage:SfnVorlage:Sfn Bacroff was subsequently remanded to prison, and in late 1942, she was transferred to the Mauthausen Concentration Camp, where she was killed on Vorlage:Date.Vorlage:SfnVorlage:Sfn

Transgender men are also known to have been targeted in Nazi Germany, though their treatment differed in some regards from transgender women, and some were even able to continue their lives publicly. One trans man, known by the masculine nicknames "Kleener"Vorlage:Efn and "Dicker",Vorlage:Efn was arrested for crossdressing in August 1940, but was released after promising to wear women's clothing in public.Vorlage:Sfn A postal worker known as Gerd W., who was a transgender man, petitioned in 1940 to have his transvestite pass restored after being unhappy attempting to live as a woman. Although his transvestite pass was not restored, he was given permission to dress as a man so long as he did not have sexual relations with women.Vorlage:Sfn Another transgender man, Gerd Kubbe, had his transvestite pass revoked in 1933. He was arrested in January 1938 for crossdressing and imprisoned at the Lichtenburg concentration camp.Vorlage:Sfn However, in October 1938, he too was released, his transvestite pass restored, and he was even granted special permission from the Gestapo to continue wearing men's clothes and using a masculine name; though he was barred from using public restrooms or baths while wearing men's clothing.Vorlage:SfnVorlage:Sfn

There exist many open questions about the imprisonment of transgender people in Nazi concentration camps. It is unknown, for example, exactly how many transgender people were killed in the concentration camps.Vorlage:Sfn Some records pertaining to the transgender people sent to the concentration camps are vague and open ended. In the case of German trans woman and club proprietor Toni Simon, her file's final document calls her a "danger to youth" and recommends sending her to a concentration camp as "absolutely necessary", without any further information on her fate.Vorlage:SfnVorlage:Sfn Fritz Kitzing, an individual who was assigned male at birth but presented as both female and male at different points in their life, was denounced by one of their neighbors in 1935 as transgender and was imprisoned without trial in Lichtenburg and later Sachsenhausen after being labeled "a transvestite of the worst kind" by the Gestapo.Vorlage:Sfn They were briefly released in 1938, but were rearrested on a charge of "atrocity propaganda" for sending a letter detailing their experiences in the concentration camps to a friend in London, after which no further records of them are known to exist.Vorlage:Sfn

Recognition and remembrance

Recognition

"Transgender" became widely recognized as an identity beginning only in the late 20th century, and the fight for legal recognition and rights for transgender people is an ongoing movement. In 2023, historian Laurie Marhoefer noted, "Up until the past few years, there had been little research on trans people under the Nazi regime."Vorlage:Sfn As such, it was not until the 2010s and 2020s that transgender people began to be recognized as victims of the Nazis and the Holocaust.Vorlage:Sfn

On Vorlage:Date, the German Bundestag voted to compensate victims of Paragraph 175. Those affected by the law had their convictions rescinded, and were given reparations of €3,000 ($3,350 in USD) plus an additional €1,500 ($1,675 in USD) for each year spent in prison.

On Vorlage:Date, the German government dedicated its annual Holocaust memorial commemoration to lesbian, bisexual, gay and transgender victims of the Holocaust.Vorlage:Sfn This marked the first time the German government had granted official recognition to transgender people as victims of the Holocaust.Vorlage:Sfn In a speech given at the commemoration, German Bundestag President Bärbel Bas stated "For our remembrance culture, it's important that we tell the stories of all victims of persecution, that we make their injustice visible, that we recognize their suffering."Vorlage:Sfn Transgender people have also been recognized or commemorated as victims of the Holocaust by the Human Rights Campaign, Amnesty International, the European Parliament, the Museum of Jewish Heritage,Vorlage:Sfn and the United Nations.

Denialism

In 2022, the Regional Court of Cologne ruled that denying that transgender people were victims of the Nazis qualifies as "a denial of Nazi crimes", which in Germany may be prosecuted as a crime.Vorlage:SfnVorlage:Sfn The ruling was an outcome of the civil libel suit of German biologist Marie-Luise Vollbrecht, who alleged libel against the German Society for Trans Identity and Intersexuality over their response to comments she made calling transgender people not "true victims" of the Holocaust.Vorlage:Sfn The court ultimately ruled that she had to accept the response made to her comments labelling her as a denialist. Laurie Marhoefer gave an expert statement on the case that was not ultimately presented to the court, writing "though there is a bit of variation and disorganization, and race matters, we see a pattern of state violence and oppression here, motivated by a hostility specific to transgender people."Vorlage:Sfn

On Vorlage:Date, author J.K. Rowling tweeted a series of responses to an anonymous critic, who argued that Rowling was upholding Nazi ideals for her viewpoints of transgender rights, in which Rowling contended that transgender people were not targeted in the Holocaust. These tweets caused some to accuse her of Holocaust denial.Vorlage:SfnVorlage:Sfn On Vorlage:Date, Rowling responded to the accusations in a post on her personal website, calling them "baseless and disgusting" and stating that she had "always been a staunch supporter of the Jewish community".Vorlage:Sfn

See also

• First homosexual movement
• Persecution of homosexuals in Nazi Germany
• Lesbians in Nazi Germany
• Transgender history § Germany
• Institut für Sexualwissenschaft

Works cited

Books

• Paul R. Bartrop, Michael Dickerman: The Holocaust: An Encyclopedia and Document Collection [4 volumes]. ABC-CLIO, 2017, ISBN 978-1-4408-4084-5, S. 457–458 (englisch, google.com). 
• Robert Beachy: Gay Berlin: birthplace of a modern identity. Alfred A. Knopf, New York 2014, ISBN 978-0-307-27210-2 (englisch). 
• Ralf Dose: Magnus Hirschfeld: The Origins of the Gay Liberation Movement. Monthly Review Press, 2014, ISBN 978-1-58367-439-0. 
• Magnus Hirschfeld: Jahrbuch für sexuelle Zwischenstufen. (deutsch: Yearbook for Intermediate Sexual Types). 1923, Die Intersexuelle Konstitution. 
• Laurie Marhoefer: Sex and the Weimar Republic: German Homosexual Emancipation and the Rise of the Nazis. University of Toronto Press, 2015. 
• Joanne Meyerowitz: How Sex Changed: A History of Transsexuality in the United States. Harvard University Press, 2009, ISBN 978-0-674-04096-0. 
• William Jake. Newsome: Pink Triangle Legacies: Coming Out in the Shadow of the Holocaust. Cornell University Press, 2022, ISBN 978-1-5017-6550-6, doi:10.1515/9781501765506 (doi.org). 
• Clayton J. Whisnant: Queer Identities and Politics in Germany: A History, 1880–1945. Springer, 2012, ISBN 978-1-939594-09-9. 
• Charlotte Wolff: Magnus Hirschfeld: A Portrait of a Pioneer in Sexology. Quartet Books, 1986, ISBN 0-7043-2569-1. 

Articles

• Bodie A Ashton: The Parallel Lives of Liddy Bacroff: Transgender (Pre)History and the Tyranny of the Archive in Twentieth-Century Germany. In: German History. 42. Jahrgang, Nr. 1, 21. Dezember 2023, S. 79–100, doi:10.1093/gerhis/ghad071. 
• Heike Bauer: The Hirschfeld Archives: Violence, Death, and Modern Queer Culture. Temple University Press, Philadelphia 2017, ISBN 978-1-4399-1433-5, doi:10.17613/M6M20D (englisch, google.com [abgerufen am 8. Juli 2018]). 
• Jasmine Bhinder, Prashant Upadhyaya: Brief History of Gender Affirmation Medicine and Surgery. In: Urological Care for the Transgender Patient. 2021, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-18533-6_19. 
• Jane Caplan: The Administration of Gender Identity in Nazi Germany. In: History Workshop Journal. 72. Jahrgang, Nr. 1, 1. Oktober 2011, S. 173–174, doi:10.1093/hwj/dbr021. 
• Marc-Antoine Crocq: How gender dysphoria and incongruence became medical diagnoses – a historical review. In: Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience. 23. Jahrgang, Nr. 1, 6. Dezember 2021, ISSN 1958-5969, S. 44–51, doi:10.1080/19585969.2022.2042166, PMID 35860172, PMC 9286744 (freier Volltext) – (englisch). 
• Vorlage:Cite encyclopedia
• Kate Fisher, Jana Funke: Sexual science beyond the medical. In: The Lancet. 387. Jahrgang, Nr. 10021, Februar 2016, S. 840–841, doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)00517-1, PMID 26977480. 
• Vorlage:Cite encyclopedia
• Alison Li: Harry Benjamin and the birth of transgender medicine. In: Canadian Medical Association Journal. 195. Jahrgang, Nr. 48, 11. Dezember 2023, S. E1665–E1667, doi:10.1503/cmaj.231436, PMID 38081632, PMC 10718274 (freier Volltext). 
• Laurie Marhoefer: Lesbianism, Transvestitism, and the Nazi State: A Microhistory of a Gestapo Investigation, 1939–1943. In: The American Historical Review. 121. Jahrgang, Nr. 4, 2016, S. 1167–1195, doi:10.1093/ahr/121.4.1167 (oup.com). 
• Laurie Marhoefer: Paper: Trans Identities and 'Cross Dressing' in Nazi Germany: Trans People as a Discrete Target of State Violence. 134th Annual Meeting American Historical Association. (confex.com [abgerufen am 3. Januar 2023]). 
• Laurie Marhoefer: Transgender Life and Persecution under the Nazi State: Gutachten on the Vollbrecht Case. In: Central European History. 56. Jahrgang, Nr. 4, Dezember 2023, S. 599, doi:10.1017/S0008938923000468. 
• Stephen Micheler: Zeitschriften, Verbände und Lokale. 2008, abgerufen am 31. März 2024. * Nicole J Polly: Understanding the transsexual patient: culturally sensitive care in emergency nursing practice. In: Advanced Emergency Nursing Journal. 33. Jahrgang, Nr. 1, 2011, S. 55–64, doi:10.1097/TME.0b013e3182080ef4, PMID 21317698. 
• Zavier Nunn: Trans Liminality and the Nazi State. In: Past and Present. 260. Jahrgang, 2022, S. 123–157, doi:10.1093/pastj/gtac018. 
• Zavier Nunn: Against anticipation, or, camp reading as reparative to the trans feminine past: A microhistory in Nazi-Era Vienna. In: Gender & History. 36. Jahrgang, Nr. 1, August 2023, S. 191–207, doi:10.1111/1468-0424.12721. 
• Katie Sutton: "We Too Deserve a Place in the Sun": The Politics of Transvestite Identity in Weimar Germany. In: German Studies Review. 35. Jahrgang, Nr. 2, 2012, S. 348, doi:10.1353/gsr.2012.a478043, JSTOR:23269669 (jstor.org [abgerufen am 17. Januar 2023]). 
• Marta V Vicente: The Medicalization of the Transsexual: Patient-Physician Narratives in the First Half of the Twentieth Century. In: Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences. 76. Jahrgang, Nr. 4, 23. September 2021, ISSN 0022-5045, doi:10.1093/jhmas/jrab037, PMID 34553224 (doi.org [abgerufen am 26. März 2023]). 

Press

• Enrique Anarte: German parliament remembers LGBTQ+ victims of the Nazis In: Reuters, 27 January 2023. Abgerufen im 16 March 2023 
• Irene Katz Connelly: It was a pioneering trans library — until the Nazis burned it. In: The Forward. 7. Juni 2023, abgerufen am 14. März 2024 (englisch). 
• Alejandra Caraballo, Mary Delaware: To protect gender-affirming care, we must learn from trans history. In: harvardpublichealth.org. Harvard Public Health, 21. Juni 2023, abgerufen am 31. März 2024. 
• Mira Fox: It wasn't just the goblins — is J.K. Rowling doing Holocaust denial now? In: The Forward. 13. März 2024, abgerufen am 14. März 2024 (englisch). 
• German parliament spotlights Nazis' LGBTQ victims for first time. France 24, 27. Januar 2023, abgerufen am 14. März 2024 (englisch). 
• Britt Hayes: J.K. Rowling's Transphobia Hits a New Low With Holocaust Denial. In: The Mary Sue. 13. März 2024, abgerufen am 14. März 2024 (englisch). 
• Holocaust Memorial Day Trust | 6 May 1933: Looting of the Institute of Sexology. Holocaust Memorial Day Trust, 13. März 2024, abgerufen am 14. März 2024 (englisch). 
• Alice Hutton: Gay Life in Berlin Is Starting to Echo a Darker Era. In: The Atlantic. 25. Dezember 2018, abgerufen am 14. März 2024 (englisch). 
• Aro Kuhrt: Das Eldorado. In: Berlin Street. 1. Juni 2015, abgerufen am 31. März 2024 (deutsch). 
• Megan Lim, Mallory Yu, Ailsa Chang: A pioneering gender-affirming health institute opened in 1919 in Berlin. NPR, 1. März 2023, abgerufen am 14. März 2024 (englisch). 
• Laurie Marhoefer: Historians are learning more about how the Nazis targeted trans people. In: The Conversation. 6. Juni 2023, abgerufen am 14. März 2024 (englisch). 
• Morta Lucy Fasani, l'unica transessuale sopravvissuta ai campi di concentramento nazisti: aveva quasi 99 anni. In: Il Messaggero. 22. März 2023, abgerufen am 14. März 2024 (italienisch). 
• Transgender Experiences in Weimar and Nazi Germany. Museum of Jewish Heritage, 3. Juni 2022, abgerufen am 19. Juni 2023 (amerikanisches Englisch). 
• Aja Romano: Is J.K. Rowling transphobic? Let's let her speak for herself. In: Vox. 14. März 2024, abgerufen am 16. März 2024 (englisch). 
• Bernhard Rosenkranz, Ulf Bollmann, Joanna White: Liddy Bacroff (Heinrich Habitz). In: raumdernamen.mauthausen-memorial.org. Mauthausen Concentration Camp Memorial, abgerufen am 14. März 2024 (englisch). 
• Vorlage:Cite magazine
• Joanne Rowling: Statement from J.K. Rowling, 14th March 2024. In: jkrowling.com. 14. März 2024, abgerufen am 7. April 2024. 
• Brandy Schillace: The Forgotten History of the World's First Trans Clinic. In: Scientific American. 10. Mai 2021, abgerufen am 14. März 2024 (englisch). 
• Hannah Steinkopf-Frank: Publishing Queer Berlin. In: JSTOR Daily. 7. Juni 2023, abgerufen am 31. März 2024. 
• Was wurde aus Dora? (deutsch: What became of Dora?). In: Tagesschau. 29. Mai 2023, abgerufen am 9. August 2023. 
• Prozess um Tweet zu NS-Verbrechen: Umstrittene Biologin der Berliner Humboldt-Uni unterliegt vor Gericht. In: Der Tagesspiegel. 11. November 2022, abgerufen am 14. März 2024 (deutsch). 
• Hannah Thomasy: A Rose for Dora Richter In: Proto Magazine, Massachusetts General Hospital, 28 March 2022. Abgerufen im 4 April 2024 
• Paragraph 175 and the Nazi Campaign against Homosexuality. The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, abgerufen am 12. März 2023. 

Further reading

• Jennifer Evans, Elissa Mailänder: Cross-dressing, Male Intimacy and the Violence of Transgression in Third Reich Photography. In: German History. 39. Jahrgang, Nr. 1, 2021, S. 54–77, doi:10.1093/gerhis/ghaa031. 
• Rainer Herrn: Transvestitismus in der NS-Zeit – Ein Forschungsdesiderat. In: Zeitschrift für Sexualforschung. 26. Jahrgang, Nr. 4, 2013, S. 330–371, doi:10.1055/s-0033-1356172. 
• Rainer Herrn: Homosexuelle im Nationalsozialismus. De Gruyter Oldenbourg, 2014, ISBN 978-3-486-85750-4, In der heutigen Staatsführung kann es nicht angehen, daß sich Männer in Frauenkleidung frei auf der Straße bewegen., S. 101–106, doi:10.1524/9783486857504.101 (degruyter.com). 
• Livia Gershon: Gender Identity in Weimar Germany. In: JSTOR Daily. 18. November 2018, abgerufen am 14. März 2024 (englisch). 
• Everyday Encounters with Fascism: Photo of the Eldorado Club. In: The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Abgerufen am 12. März 2023. 
• Liz Tracey: 90 Years On: The Destruction of the Institute of Sexual Science. In: JSTOR Daily. 31. Mai 2023, abgerufen am 14. März 2024 (englisch). 
• Matthew Wills: Visualizing Trans Identities. In: JSTOR Daily. 8. Juli 2022, abgerufen am 14. März 2024 (englisch).