„Benutzer:Shi Annan/Walashma“ – Versionsunterschied

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{{short description|Medieval Muslim dynasty in the Horn of Africa}}
{{short description|Medieval Muslim dynasty in the Horn of Africa}}
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The '''Walashma dynasty''' was a medieval [[Muslim]] dynasty of the Horn of Africa founded in [[Ifat (historical region)|Ifat]] (modern eastern [[Shewa]]).<ref>{{cite book |title=Ifat |publisher=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Ifat}}</ref> Founded in the 13th century, it governed the [[Sultanate of Ifat|Ifat]] and [[Adal Sultanate|Adal]] [[Sultan]]ates in what are present-day [[Somalia]], [[Djibouti]] and eastern [[Ethiopia]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=WORLD ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF AFRICAN COUNTRIES|last=Jyee|first=Dr. Ravi|publisher=AFRO-ASIAN-AMERICAN CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, OCCUPATIONAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT (ACCORD)|year=2016|location=New Delhi, India|pages=360|quote=Founded in 1285 by the Walashma dynasty, it was centered in Zeila. Ifat established bases in Djibouti and Somalia, and from there expanded southward to the Ahmar Mountains.}}</ref>
{{use dmy dates|cs1-dates=ly|date=January 2024}}
⚫
The '''Walashma dynasty''' was a medieval [[Muslim]] dynasty of the Horn of Africa founded in [[Ifat (historical region)|Ifat]] (modern eastern [[Shewa]]).<ref>{{cite book |title=Ifat |publisher=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Ifat}}</ref> Founded in the 13th century, it governed the [[Sultanate of Ifat|Ifat]] and [[Adal Sultanate|Adal]] [[Sultan]]ates in what are present-day, [[Somalia]], [[Djibouti]], [[Eritrea]] and eastern [[Ethiopia]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=WORLD ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF AFRICAN COUNTRIES|last=Jyee|first=Dr. Ravi|publisher=AFRO-ASIAN-AMERICAN CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, OCCUPATIONAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT (ACCORD)|year=2016|location=New Delhi, India|pages=360|quote=Founded in 1285 by the Walashma dynasty, it was centered in Zeila. Ifat established bases in Djibouti and Somalia, and from there expanded southward to the Ahmar Mountains.}}</ref>

==History==
{{Expand section|date=June 2024}}


==Genealogical traditions==
==Genealogical traditions==
The Walashma princes of Ifat and [[Adal (historical region)|Adal]] claimed to possessed [[Arab]] genealogical traditions.<ref name="Elfasi">{{cite book|last=M. Elfasi|first=Ivan Hrbek|title=Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century, General History of Africa, Volume 3|year=1988 |publisher=UNESCO|isbn=9231017098|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tw0Q0tg0QLoC&pg=PA582|pages=580–582}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kSgmwugWCGMC&q=%22maqrizi+and+the+chronicle%22&pg=PA43|title=Ethiopia: the Land, Its People, History and Culture|last=Mekonnen|first=Yohannes|date=2013-01-29|publisher=Yohannes Mekonnen|isbn=9781482311174|language=en}}</ref> In terms of lineage, Walashma traditions trace descent from [[Banu Makhzum]] tribe by El Maqrisi. But Ifat Sultanate trace descent from [[Aqeel ibn Abi Talib|Akīl ibn Abī Tālib]], the brother of the Caliph [[Ali|ʿAlī]] and Djaʿfar ibn Abī Tālib which is a similar origin story to the [[Darod clan]]. The latter was among the earliest Muslims to settle in the Horn region. However, the semi-legendary apologetic History of the Walasma asserts that ʿUmar ibn-Dunya-hawaz was a descendant of Caliph ʿAlī's son al-Hasan.<ref name="Elfasi" /> This is not supported by both [[Al-Maqrizi|Maqrizi]] and the chronicle of the Walashma. But ʿUmar ibn-Dunya-hawaz, whom both assert was the founder of the dynasty, was of [[Quraysh tribe|Quraysh]] or [[Banu Hashim|Hashimite]] origin.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="Tamrat">{{cite book|last=Tamrat|first=Taddesse|title=Church and state in Ethiopia, 1270-1527|year=1972|publisher=Clarendon Press|pages=124|isbn=978-0-19-821671-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8ZNyAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> Fourteenth century [[Arab]] historian [[Ibn Khaldun]] mentions the ancestors of Walasma were once tributary to the [[Kingdom of Damot]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Ibn Haldun |publisher=Encyclopedia Aethiopica |url=https://en.sewasew.com/p/ibn-haldun}}</ref>
The Walashma princes of Ifat and [[Adal (historical region)|Adal]] claimed to possessed [[Arab]] genealogical traditions.<ref name="Elfasi">{{cite book|last=M. Elfasi|first=Ivan Hrbek|title=Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century, General History of Africa, Volume 3|year=1988|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=9231017098|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tw0Q0tg0QLoC&pg=PA582|pages=580–582}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kSgmwugWCGMC&q=%22maqrizi+and+the+chronicle%22&pg=PA43|title=Ethiopia: the Land, Its People, History and Culture|last=Mekonnen|first=Yohannes|date=2013-01-29|publisher=Yohannes Mekonnen|isbn=9781482311174|language=en}}</ref> In terms of lineage, Walashma traditions trace descent from [[Banu Makhzum]] tribe by El Maqrisi. But Ifat Sultanate trace descent from [[Aqeel ibn Abi Talib|Akīl ibn Abī Tālib]], the brother of the Caliph [[Ali|ʿAlī]] and Djaʿfar ibn Abī Tālib. The latter was among the earliest Muslims to settle in the Horn region. However, the semi-legendary apologetic History of the Walasma asserts that ʿUmar ibn-Dunya-hawz had as a progenitor Caliph ʿAlī's son al-Hasan.<ref name="Elfasi" /> This is not supported by both [[Al-Maqrizi|Maqrizi]] and the chronicle of the Walashma. But ʿUmar ibn-Dunya-hawz, whom both assert was the founder of the dynasty, was of [[Quraysh tribe|Quraysh]] or [[Banu Hashim|Hashimite]] origin.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="Tamrat">{{cite book|last=Tamrat|first=Taddesse|title=Church and state in Ethiopia, 1270-1527|year=1972|publisher=Clarendon Press|pages=124|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8ZNyAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> Fourteenth century [[Arab]] historian [[Ibn Khaldun]] mentions the ancestors of Walasma were once tributary to the [[Kingdom of Damot]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Ibn Haldun |publisher=Encyclopedia Aethiopica |url=https://en.sewasew.com/p/ibn-haldun}}</ref>


However, most historians, including [[Enrico Cerulli]] and [[J. Spencer Trimingham]], regard the Walashma dynasty to be of local origin.{{sfn|Trimingham|1965|p=67}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cerulli |first1=Enrico |title=Islam: Yesterday and Today translated by Emran Waber |publisher=Istituto Per L'Oriente |page=323 |url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1g-LkxaXWZopjLCFEuWm8wnly2lh4WvFp/view}}</ref> Cerulli asserts that according to Harar chronicles, the 10th century [[Somali people|Somali]] [[wali|saint]] ''"[[Aw (father)|Aw]]"'' [[Yusuf bin Ahmad al-Kawneyn|Barkhadle]] from [[Arabia]] was the fifth ancestor ofʿUmar ibn Dunya-hawaz, founder of the Walashma Dynasty.<ref name="Cerulli, Enrico 1926">Cerulli, Enrico (1926). ''Le popolazioni della Somalia nella tradizione storica locale''. L'Accademia. "Cerulli suggests that the Saint "Aw Barkhdale" (Yusuf Al Kownayn) can be associated with "Yusuf Barkatla", ancestor of Umar' Walashma, founder of the Ifat dynasty"</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P5AZyEhMtbkC&q=sharif+barkhadle&pg=PA89 |title=Saints and Somalis: Popular Islam in a Clan-based Society |last=Lewis |first=Ioan M. |date=1998 |publisher=The Red Sea Press |isbn=9781569021033 |page=89}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Writing of the Somali Language: A Great Landmark in Our Revolutionary History|author1=Somalia|author2=Wasaaradda Warfaafinta iyo Hanuuninta Dadweynaha|date=1972|publisher=Ministry of Information and National Guidance|page=10|language=en|quote=Aw Barkhadle, he was a native, who lived in about 1,000 years ago and is buried now in a ruined town named after him, Aw Barkhadle, which is a few miles away from Hargeisa.}}</ref> [[Ioan Lewis]] also mentions that in a short king-list titled 'Rulers of the land of Sa'ad ad-Din', Barkhadle is recognized as one of the Walashma ancestors.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Ioan M. |title=Saints and Somalis: popular Islam in a clan-based society |date=1998 |publisher=The Red Sea Press [u.a.] |location=Lawrenceville, NJ |isbn=9781569021033 |page=92 |edition=1. Red Sea Press}}</ref> Lewis places his death at around 1190 AD.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Ioan M. |title=Saints and Somalis: popular Islam in a clan-based society |date=1998 |publisher=The Red Sea Press [u.a.] |location=Lawrenceville, NJ |isbn=9781569021033 |page=93 |edition=1. Red Sea Press}}</ref> [[J. Spencer Trimingham]] does note that according to local traditions though, he was said to have lived for over 500 years, placing his death in the early 16th century.{{sfn|Trimingham|1965|p=251}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Drake-Brockman |first1=R.E |title=British Somaliland |pages=219}}</ref> Some rulers of the Walashma Dynasty are also thought to be buried at the site of [[Aw-Barkhadle]] in modern-day [[Somaliland]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mire |first1=Sada |title=Divine Fertility: The Continuity in Transformation of an Ideology of Sacred Kinship in Northeast Africa |date=5 February 2020 |publisher=Routledge |location=London New York |isbn=978-0-429-76924-5 |page=69 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J6nODwAAQBAJ&q=some%20of%20whose%20rulers%20are%20thought%20to%20be%20buried%20at%20Aw-Barkhadle |language=en}}</ref> As descendants of Barkhadle, it was said that the Walashma success, longevity, and influence was due to their native family background<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rirash |first1=Mohamed Abdillahi |title=Effects of Sixteenth Century Upheavals on the History of the Horn |journal=Proceedings of the Third International Congress of Somali Studies |date=1988 |page=251 |url=https://arcadia.sba.uniroma3.it/bitstream/2307/1026/5/34_M.%20A.%20RIRASH%20-%20Effects%20of%20sixteenth%20century%20upheavals%20on%20the%20history%20of%20the%20horn.pdf}}</ref> Walasma are historically tied to the ancestors of [[Argobba people|Argobba]] and the people of [[Doba (historical region)|Doba]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kifleyesus |first1=Abebe |title=Tradition and Transformation The Argobba of Ethiopia |date=28 January 2024 |publisher=Harrassowitz |page=44 |isbn=978-3-447-05341-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=plclkFB9KZwC&dq=further+north+were+the+nomadic+Doba+who+are+traditionally+related+to+the&pg=PA44}}</ref> The [[Harari people]] also claim to be associated with the Walasma.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Asfaw |first1=Aklilu |title=A short History of the Argobba |date=2000 |journal=Annales d'Éthiopie |volume=16 |page=174 |doi=10.3406/ethio.2000.973 |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/ethio_0066-2127_2000_num_16_1_973}}</ref> [[Bahru Zewde]], [[Richard Pankhurst (Ethiopianist)|Richard Pankhurst]], [[Djibril Tamsir Niane|Djibril Niane]] regard the Walasma Sultans of Ifat and Adal to be predominantly [[Argobba people|Argobba]] and [[Harari people|Harari]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Zewde |first1=Bahru |title=A Short History of Ethiopia and the Horn |year=1998 |publisher=Addis Ababa University |page=64 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N8pRAQAAMAAJ&q=a+short+history+of+ethiopia+and+the+horn+new+Walasma+sultanate}}</ref>{{sfn|Pankhurst|1997|p=52}}<ref>{{cite book |title=The Cambridge History of Africa |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=147–150 |url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/archive-files3/roland_oliver_the_cambridge_history_of_africa_vbook4you.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Niane |first1=Djibril |title=General History of Africa |date=31 December 1984 |publisher=Heinemann Educational Books |page=427 |isbn=978-92-3-101710-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iAcf63sQGhIC&dq=harari+and+argobba+speaking+walasma&pg=PA427}}</ref> However, Amelie Chekroun suggests no possible link to identify the people of medieval Ifat with the [[Argobba people]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chekroun |first=Amélie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fn_pEAAAQBAJ&dq=sabr+ad-din+Adal&pg=PT42 |title=La Conquête de l'Éthiopie - Un jihad au XVIe siècle |date=2023-02-23 |publisher=CNRS editions |isbn=978-2-271-14543-7 |pages=179 |language=fr}}</ref>
However, most historians regard the Walashma dynasty to be of local origin descending from Yusuf bin Ahmad al-Kawneyn, a Somali Sheikh. [[Enrico Cerulli]] and [[J. Spencer Trimingham]] considers them to be ethnic Somali-[[Argobba people|Argobbas]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Trimmingham |first1=John Spencer |title=Islam in Ethiopia |date=1952 |page=67 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XbVmNAAACAAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Cerulli |first1=Enrico |title=Islam: Yesterday and Today translated by Emran Waber |publisher=Istituto Per L'Oriente |page=323 |url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1g-LkxaXWZopjLCFEuWm8wnly2lh4WvFp/view}}</ref> Walashma are historically tied to the ancestors of Argobba the people of [[Doba (historical region)|Doba]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kifleyesus |first1=Abebe |title=Tradition and Transformation The Argobba of Ethiopia |publisher=Harrassowitz |page=44 |url=https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Tradition_and_Transformation/plclkFB9KZwC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=further+north+were+the+nomadic+Doba+who+are+traditionally+related+to+the&pg=PA44&printsec=frontcover}}</ref> The [[Harari people]] also claim to be associated with the Walasma.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Asfaw |first1=Aklilu |title=A short History of the Argobba |publisher=Annales d'Éthiopie |page=174 |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/ethio_0066-2127_2000_num_16_1_973}}</ref> [[Bahru Zewde]], [[Richard Pankhurst (Ethiopianist)|Richard Pankhurst]], [[Djibril Tamsir Niane|Djibril Niane]] and others regard the Walasma Sultans of Ifat and Adal to be predominantly [[Argobba people|Argobba]] and [[Harari people|Harari]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Zewde |first1=Bahru |title=A Short History of Ethiopia and the Horn |year=1998 |publisher=Addis Ababa University |page=64 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N8pRAQAAMAAJ&q=a+short+history+of+ethiopia+and+the+horn+new+Walasma+sultanate}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Pankhurst |first1=Richard |title=The Ethiopian Borderlands Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century |pages=225 |url=https://www.google.ca/books/edition/The_Ethiopian_Borderlands/zpYBD3bzW1wC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Har%C3%A4ri+sultan+%27umar+din&pg=PA225&printsec=frontcover}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Cambridge History of Africa |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=147–150 |url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/archive-files3/roland_oliver_the_cambridge_history_of_africa_vbook4you.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Niane |first1=Djibril |title=General History of Africa |publisher=Heinemann Educational Books |page=427 |url=https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Africa_from_the_Twelfth_to_the_Sixteenth/iAcf63sQGhIC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=harari+and+argobba+speaking+walasma&pg=PA427&printsec=frontcover}}</ref> [[Enrico Cerulli]] asserts that one of the ancestors of ʿUmar ibn DunyaHuz was the 10th century [[Somali people|Somali]] [[wali|saint]] ''"[[Aw (father)|Aw]]"'' [[Yusuf bin Ahmad al-Kawneyn|Barkhadle]] from [[Arabia]].<ref name="Cerulli, Enrico 1926">Cerulli, Enrico (1926). ''Le popolazioni della Somalia nella tradizione storica locale''. L'Accademia. "Cerulli suggests that the Saint "Aw Barkhdale" (Yusuf Al Kownayn) can be associated with "Yusuf Barkatla", ancestor of Umar' Walashma, founder of the Ifat dynasty"</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P5AZyEhMtbkC&q=sharif+barkhadle&pg=PA89|title=Saints and Somalis: Popular Islam in a Clan-based Society|last=Lewis|first=I. M.|date=1998|publisher=The Red Sea Press|isbn=9781569021033|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Writing of the Somali Language: A Great Landmark in Our Revolutionary History|author1=Somalia|author2=Wasaaradda Warfaafinta iyo Hanuuninta Dadweynaha|date=1972|publisher=Ministry of Information and National Guidance|page=10|language=en|quote=Aw Barkhadle, he was a native, who lived in about 1,000 years ago and is buried now in a ruined town named after him, Aw Barkhadle, which is a few miles away from Hargeisa.}}</ref> [[J. Spencer Trimingham]] considers this to be unlikely, as according to local traditions he lived for over 500 years and died in the early 16th century.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Trimmingham |first1=J. Spencer |title=Islam in Ethiopia |date=1952 |pages=251 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XbVmNAAACAAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Drake-Brockman |first1=R.E |title=British Somaliland |pages=219}}</ref>


Walasma dynasty of Ifat initiated a series of marriage alliances with the leaders of Adal, according to the chronicle ''"Conquest of Abyssinia"'' by [[Shihab al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd al-Qādir ibn Sālim ibn ʿUthmān|Arab Faqīh]], [[Harla]] lords descendant from the last Walasma ruler of Ifat [[Sa'ad ad-Din II]] participated in the sixteenth century [[Ethiopian–Adal War]].<ref>{{cite book |title=IV Congresso Internazionale Di Studi Etiopici (Roma, 10-15 Aprile 1972) |date=28 January 1974 |publisher=Accademia nazionale dei Lincei |page=623 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sb4KAQAAIAAJ&q=adal+was+also+an+independent+sultanate+until+it+was+reduced+to+vassalage+at+about+the+same+time+as+Ifat.+Members+of+the+Walasma+dynasty+of+Ifat+had+intermarried+extensively+with+the+ruling+families+of+Adal}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Chekroun |first1=Amélie |title=Le" Futuh al-Habasa": écriture de l'histoire, guerre et société dans le Bar Sa'ad ad-din |publisher=Université Panthéon-Sorbonn |pages=197–198 |url=https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-01134623/document}}</ref> The last known Walasma member in [[Adal (historical region)|Adal]] was [[Barakat ibn Umar Din]] of [[Harar]] during the sixteenth century.{{sfn|Trimingham|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Kd3bAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT167 92]}} The Kabirto of [[Harla]] as well as [[Doba (historical region)|Doba]] who originate from the Walasma dynasty were overthrown in 1769 by the [[Mudaito dynasty]] of [[Afar people|Afar]] in [[Asaita|Aussa]] (modern [[Afar Region]]), the descendant of Kabirto Shaykh [[Kabir (teacher)|Kabir]] Hamza, preserved their history through manuscripts.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Alwan |first1=Daoud |title=Historical Dictionary of Djibouti |date=28 January 2024 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |page=19 |isbn=978-0-8108-3873-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b9drQ9YeLxcC&dq=walasma&pg=PA19}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |last=Fani |first=Sara |date=2017 |title=IslHornAfr 6 th Field Mission Report |publisher=University of Cophenhagen |page=10 |url=http://www.islhornafr.eu/ReportAwsa2017.pdf |access-date=2023-04-17 |archive-date=2023-04-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404094427/http://www.islhornafr.eu/ReportAwsa2017.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bausi |first1=Alessandro |title=Ethiopia History, Culture and Challenges |date=28 January 2024 |publisher=Michigan State University Press |page=83 |isbn=978-3-643-90892-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h-g7DwAAQBAJ&dq=were+reclaimed+by+migrant+populations+from+the+highlands+(Haralla,+Dobaa)+who+were+integrated+into+Afar+ethnicity&pg=PA83}}</ref>
Walasma dynasty of Ifat initiated a series of marriage alliances with the leaders of Adal, according to the chronicle ''"Conquest of Abyssinia"'' by Arab faqih, [[Harla]] lords descendant from the last Walasma ruler of Ifat [[Sa'ad ad-Din II]] participated in the sixteenth century [[Ethiopian–Adal War]].<ref>{{cite book |title=IV Congresso Internazionale Di Studi Etiopici (Roma, 10-15 Aprile 1972) |publisher=Accademia nazionale dei Lincei |page=623 |url=https://www.google.ca/books/edition/IV_Congresso_Internazionale_Di_Studi_Eti/sb4KAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=adal+was+also+an+independent+sultanate+until+it+was+reduced+to+vassalage+at+about+the+same+time+as+Ifat.+Members+of+the+Walasma+dynasty+of+Ifat+had+intermarried+extensively+with+the+ruling+families+of+Adal&dq=adal+was+also+an+independent+sultanate+until+it+was+reduced+to+vassalage+at+about+the+same+time+as+Ifat.+Members+of+the+Walasma+dynasty+of+Ifat+had+intermarried+extensively+with+the+ruling+families+of+Adal&printsec=frontcover}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Chekroun |first1=Amélie |title=Le" Futuh al-Habasa": écriture de l'histoire, guerre et société dans le Bar Sa'ad ad-din |publisher=Université Panthéon-Sorbonn |pages=197–198 |url=https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-01134623/document}}</ref> The last known Walasma member in [[Adal (historical region)|Adal]] was [[Barakat ibn Umar Din]] of [[Harar]] during the sixteenth century.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Trimingham |first1=J.Spencer |title=Islam in Ethiopia |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=92 |url=https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Islam_in_Ethiopia/Kd3bAAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=after+him+the+walashma+dynasty+disappears&pg=PT167&printsec=frontcover}}</ref> The Kabirto of [[Harla]] as well as [[Doba (historical region)|Doba]] who originate from the Walasma dynasty were overthrown in 1769 by the [[Mudaito dynasty]] of [[Afar people|Afar]] in [[Asaita|Aussa]] (modern [[Afar Region]]), the descendant of Kabirto shaykh [[Kabir (teacher)|Kabir]] Hamza, preserved their history through manuscripts.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Alwan |first1=Daoud |title=Historical Dictionary of Djibouti |publisher=Scarecrow Press |page=19 |url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=b9drQ9YeLxcC&dq=walasma&pg=PA19&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=walasma&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=IslHornAfr 6 th Field Mission Report |publisher=University of Cophenhagen |page=10 |url=http://www.islhornafr.eu/ReportAwsa2017.pdf |access-date=2023-04-17 |archive-date=2023-04-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404094427/http://www.islhornafr.eu/ReportAwsa2017.pdf |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bausi |first1=Alessandro |title=Ethiopia History, Culture and Challenges |publisher=Michigan State University Press |page=83 |url=https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Ethiopia/h-g7DwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=were+reclaimed+by+migrant+populations+from+the+highlands+(Haralla,+Dobaa)+who+were+integrated+into+Afar+ethnicity&pg=PA83&printsec=frontcover}}</ref>


The title Walasma was still used in [[Ifat (historical region)|Ifat province]] as late as the nineteenth century with governors of that region claiming descent from the old dynasty.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Darkwah |first1=Rexford |title=The rise of the kingdom of Shoa 1813-1889 |publisher=University of London |page=259 |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/28645/1/10672805.pdf}}</ref> In 1993 Mohammed Saleh who professed his ancestors were the Argobba Walasma of Ifat revealed that his progenitors were traders of the [[Shewa]]-Harar route for centuries.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Omer |first1=Ahmed |title=Some Notes on Harar and the local Trade Routes: A Report on the view of ex-merchants of Shäwa (1839-1935) |publisher=Annales d'Ethiopie |pages=141–142 |url=https://everythingharar.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/article_ethio_0066-2127_2001_num_17_1_995.pdf}}</ref>
The title Walasma was still used in [[Ifat (historical region)|Ifat province]] as late as the nineteenth century with governors of that region claiming descent from the old dynasty.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Darkwah |first1=Rexford |title=The rise of the kingdom of Shoa 1813-1889 |publisher=University of London |page=259 |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/28645/1/10672805.pdf}}</ref> In 1993 Mohammed Saleh who professed his ancestors were the Argobba Walasma of Ifat revealed that his progenitors were traders of the [[Shewa]]-Harar route for centuries.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Omer |first1=Ahmed |title=Some Notes on Harar and the local Trade Routes: A Report on the view of ex-merchants of Shäwa (1839-1935) |publisher=Annales d'Ethiopie |pages=141-142 |url=https://everythingharar.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/article_ethio_0066-2127_2001_num_17_1_995.pdf}}</ref>


==Language==
==Language==
⚫
Historians state the language spoken by the people of Adal as well as its rulers the Imams and Sultans would closely resemble contemporary [[Harari language]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ferry |first1=Robert |title=Quelques hypothèses sur les origines des conquêtes musulmanes en Abyssinie au XVIe siècle |year=1961 |journal=Cahiers d'Études africaines |volume=2 |issue=5 |pages=28–29 |doi=10.3406/cea.1961.2961 |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/cea_0008-0055_1961_num_2_5_2961}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Harbeson |first1=John |title=Territorial and Development Politics in the Horn of Africa: The Afar of the Awash Valley |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=486 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/721961}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lindahl |first1=Bernhard |title=Local history of Ethiopia |publisher=Nordic Africa Institute |page=37 |url=https://nai.uu.se/download/18.39fca04516faedec8b248c17/1580827183104/ORTAST05.pdf}}</ref> The 19th-century Ethiopian historian Asma Giyorgis suggests that the Walashma themselves spoke Arabic.<ref name="history of sawa">{{cite book|last=Giyorgis|first=Asma|title=Aṣma Giyorgis and his work: history of the Gāllā and the kingdom of Šawā|year=1999|publisher=Medical verlag|isbn=9783515037167|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mGcwAQAAIAAJ&q=walasma+language|page=257}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Dilebo |first1=Lapiso |title=An introduction to Ethiopian history from the Megalithism Age to the Republic, circa 13000 B.C. to 2000 A.D. |quote="Like their direct descendants, the Adares of today , the people of ancient Shewa, Yifat, Adal, Harar and Awssa were semitic in their ethnic and linguistic origins. They were neither Somalis nor Afar. But the Somali and Afar nomads were the local subjects of the Adal." |date=2003 |publisher=Commercial Printing Enterprise |page=41 |url=https://emu.tind.io/record/42082?ln=en}}</ref>
According to [[Leo Africanus]] in the 16th century stated that the Walashma dynasty spoke [[Somali language|Somali]] alongside [[Arabic]] and were centred in [[Zeila]].<ref name="Leo Africanus source">{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fTd6QAAACAAJ&q=Leo+Africanus|title=A Geographical Historie of Africa|first=Leo|last=(Africanus)|date=6 April 1969|publisher=Theatrum Orbis Terrarum|access-date=6 April 2018|via=Google Books}}</ref>

⚫
According to Ferry Robert and Harbeson John the language spoken by the people of Adal as well as its rulers the Imams and Sultans would closely resemble contemporary [[Harari language]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ferry |first1=Robert |title=Quelques hypothèses sur les origines des conquêtes musulmanes en Abyssinie au XVIe siècle |year=1961 |journal=Cahiers d'Études africaines |volume=2 |issue=5 |pages=28–29 |doi=10.3406/cea.1961.2961 |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/cea_0008-0055_1961_num_2_5_2961}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harbeson |first1=John |title=Territorial and Development Politics in the Horn of Africa: The Afar of the Awash Valley |journal=African Affairs |date=1978 |volume=77 |issue=309 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=486 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a097023 |jstor=721961 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/721961}}</ref> The 19th-century Ethiopian historian Asma Giyorgis suggests that the Walashma themselves spoke Arabic.<ref name="history of sawa">{{cite book|last=Giyorgis|first=Asma|title=Aṣma Giyorgis and his work: history of the Gāllā and the kingdom of Šawā|year=1999|publisher=Medical verlag|isbn=9783515037167|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mGcwAQAAIAAJ&q=walasma+language|page=257}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Dilebo |first1=Lapiso |title=An introduction to Ethiopian history from the Megalithism Age to the Republic, circa 13000 B.C. to 2000 A.D. |quote="Like their direct descendants, the Adares of today, the people of ancient Shewa, Yifat, Adal, Harar and Awssa were semitic in their ethnic and linguistic origins. They were neither Somalis nor Afar. But the Somali and Afar nomads were the local subjects of the Adal." |date=2003 |publisher=Commercial Printing Enterprise |page=41 |oclc=318904173 |url=https://emu.tind.io/record/42082?ln=en}}</ref>


==Sultanate of Ifat==
==Sultanate of Ifat==
{{main|Sultanate of Ifat}}
{{main|Sultanate of Ifat}}


During the end of the 13th century, northern [[Hararghe]] was seat of a Muslim sultanate named under the rule of [[Makhzumi dynasty]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Braukhaper|first1=Ulrich|title=Islamic History and Culture in Southern Ethiopia: Collected Essays|date=2002|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|page=21|isbn=9783825856717|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HGnyk8Pg9NgC&dq=sawa+itself+were+located+in+northern+hararge&pg=PA21|access-date=12 March 2017}}</ref> A contemporary source describes the sultanate being torn apart by internal strafe and weakened by struggles with neighboring Muslim states. In 1278 one of these neighboring states, named Ifat in eastern Shewa, led by the Walashma invaded the Sultanate of Shewa. After a few years of struggle the sultanate was annexed into [[Ifat (historical region)|Ifat]]. This annexation is usually attributed to ʿUmar, but he had been dead for 50 years by the time Shewa was annexed. More likely, it was his grandson Jamal ad-Dīn or perhaps even his great-grandson Abūd. In 1288 Sultan Wali Asma successfully conquered [[Hubat]], [[Adal (historical region)|Adal]] and other Muslim states in the region. Making Ifat the most powerful Muslim kingdom in the [[Horn of Africa]].{{sfn|Trimingham|1952|p=58}}
During the end of the 13th century, northern [[Hararghe]] was seat of a Muslim sultanate named under the rule of [[Makhzumi dynasty]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Braukhaper|first1=Ulrich|title=Islamic History and Culture in Southern Ethiopia: Collected Essays|date=2002|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|page=21|isbn=9783825856717|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HGnyk8Pg9NgC&dq=sawa+itself+were+located+in+northern+hararge&pg=PA21|access-date=12 March 2017}}</ref> A contemporary source describes the sultanate being torn apart by internal strafe and weakened by struggles with neighboring Muslim states. In 1278 one of these neighboring states, named Ifat in eastern Shewa, led by the Walashma invaded the Sultanate of Showa. After a few years of struggle the sultanate was annexed into [[Ifat (historical region)|Ifat]]. This annexation is usually attributed to ʿUmar, but he had been dead for 50 years by the time Showa was annexed. More likely, it was his grandson Jamal ad-Dīn or perhaps even his great-grandson Abūd. In 1288 Sultan Wali Asma successfully conquered [[Hubat]], [[Adal (historical region)|Adal]] and other Muslim states in the region. Making Ifat the most powerful Muslim kingdom in the [[Horn of Africa]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Trimingham |first1=John |title=Islam in Ethiopia |year=1952 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=58 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B4NHAQAAIAAJ&q=hobat+adal}}</ref>


In 1332, the Sultan of Ifat, [[Haqq ad-Din I]] was slain in a military campaign against the Abyssinian Emperor [[Amda Seyon]]'s troops.<ref name="Houtsma">{{cite book|last=Houtsma|first=M. Th|title=E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936|year=1987|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9004082654|pages=125–126|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zJU3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA125}}</ref> Amda Seyon then appointed [[Jamal ad-Din I|Jamal ad-Din]] as the new King, followed by Jamal ad-Din's brother [[Nasr ad-Din (governor of Ifat)|Nasr ad-Din]].<ref>''The Glorious Victories'', p. 107.{{full citation needed|date=January 2024}}</ref> Despite this setback, the Muslim rulers of Ifat continued their campaign. The Abyssinian Emperor branded the Muslims of the surrounding area "enemies of the Lord", and again invaded Ifat in the early 15th century. After much struggle, Ifat's troops were defeated and the Sultanate's ruler, King [[Sa'ad ad-Din II]], fled to Zeila. He was pursued there by Abyssinian forces, where they slayed him.{{sfn|Trimingham|1976|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UfrcAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA74 74, note 4 explains the discrepancy in the sources]}}
In 1332, the Sultan of Ifat, [[Haqq ad-Din I]] was slain in a military campaign against the Abyssinian Emperor [[Amda Seyon]]'s troops.<ref name="Houtsma">{{cite book|last=Houtsma|first=M. Th|title=E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936|year=1987|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9004082654|pages=125–126|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zJU3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA125}}</ref> Amda Seyon then appointed [[Jamal ad-Din I|Jamal ad-Din]] as the new King, followed by Jamal ad-Din's brother [[Nasr ad-Din (governor of Ifat)|Nasr ad-Din]].<ref>''The Glorious Victories'', p. 107.</ref> Despite this setback, the Muslim rulers of Ifat continued their campaign. The Abyssinian Emperor branded the Muslims of the surrounding area "enemies of the Lord", and again invaded Ifat in the early 15th century. After much struggle, Ifat's troops were defeated and the Sultanate's ruler, King [[Sa'ad ad-Din II]], fled to Zeila. He was pursued there by Abyssinian forces, where they slayed him.<ref>J. Spencer Trimingham, ''Islam in Ethiopia'' (Oxford: Geoffrey Cumberlege for the University Press, 1952), p. 74 and note explains the discrepancy in the sources.</ref>


===Sultans of Ifat===
===Sultans of Ifat===
Zeile 33: Zeile 29:
|-
|-
| 1
| 1
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān [[Umar Walasma|'''ʿUmar''' Dunya-Hawaz]]
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān '''ʿUmar''' DunyaHuz
| style=white-space:nowrap| 1197–1276
| style=white-space:nowrap| 1185 - 1228
| Founder of the Walashma dynasty, his nickname was ʿAdūnyo or Wilinwīli. He started a military campaign to conquer the Sultanate of Shewa. The Sheikh [[Yusuf bin Ahmad al-Kawneyn|Yusuf al-Kowneyn]] is his 5th ancestor.
| Founder of the Walashma dynasty, his nickname was ʿAdūnyo or Wilinwīli
|-
|-
| 2
| 2
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān [[Ali Baziyu|'''ʿAli''' "Baziyu" Naḥwi ʿUmar]]
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān '''ʿAli''' "Baziwi" ʿUmar
| style=white-space:nowrap| 1276–1299
| style=white-space:nowrap| 1228 - 12??
| Son of ʿUmar DunyaHuz
| Son of ʿUmar Dunya-Hawaz, he led many successful campaigns the most notable of which being the Conquest of the Shewa and burning of their capital marking the end of the [[Makhzumi dynasty]].
|-
|-
| 3
| 3
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān '''ḤaqqudDīn''' ʿUmar
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān '''ḤaqqudDīn''' ʿUmar
| style=white-space:nowrap| 12??–12??
| style=white-space:nowrap| 12?? - 12??
| Son of ʿUmar Dunya-Hawaz
| Son of ʿUmar DunyaHuz
|-
|-
| 4
| 4
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān '''Ḥusein''' ʿUmar
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān '''Ḥusein''' ʿUmar
| style=white-space:nowrap| 12??–12??
| style=white-space:nowrap| 12?? - 12??
| Son of ʿUmar Dunya-Hawaz
| Son of ʿUmar DunyaHuz
|-
|-
| 5
| 5
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān '''NasradDīn''' ʿUmar
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān '''NasradDīn''' ʿUmar
| style=white-space:nowrap| 12??–12??
| style=white-space:nowrap| 12?? - 12??
| Son of ʿUmar Dunya-Hawaz
| Son of ʿUmar DunyaHuz
|-
|-
| 6
| 6
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān '''Mansur''' ʿAli
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān '''Mansur''' ʿAli
| style=white-space:nowrap| 12??–12??
| style=white-space:nowrap| 12?? - 12??
| Son of ʿAli "Baziyu" ʿUmar
| Son of ʿAli "Baziwi" ʿUmar
|-
|-
| 7
| 7
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān '''JamaladDīn''' ʿAli
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān '''JamaladDīn''' ʿAli
| style=white-space:nowrap| 12??–12??
| style=white-space:nowrap| 12?? - 12??
| Son of ʿAli "Baziyu" ʿUmar
| Son of ʿAli "Baziwi" ʿUmar
|-
|-
| 8
| 8
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān '''Abūd''' JamaladDīn
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān '''Abūd''' JamaladDīn
| style=white-space:nowrap| 12??–12??
| style=white-space:nowrap| 12?? - 12??
| Son of JamaladDīn ʿAli
| Son of JamaladDīn ʿAli
|-
|-
| 9
| 9
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān '''Zubēr''' Abūd
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān '''Zubēr''' Abūd
| style=white-space:nowrap| 12??–13??
| style=white-space:nowrap| 12?? - 13??
| Son of Abūd JamaladDīn
| Son of Abūd JamaladDīn
|-
|-
| 10
| 10
| style=white-space:nowrap| [[Mati Layla Abud|Māti '''Layla''' Abūd]]
| style=white-space:nowrap| [[Mati Layla Abud|Māti '''Layla''' Abūd]]
| style=white-space:nowrap| 13??–13??
| style=white-space:nowrap| 13?? - 13??
| Daughter of Abūd JamaladDīn
| Daughter of Abūd JamaladDīn
|-
|-
| 11
| 11
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān [[Haqq ad-Din I|'''ḤaqqudDīn''' Naḥwi]]
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān [[Haqq ad-Din I|'''ḤaqqudDīn''' Naḥwi]]
| style=white-space:nowrap| 13??–1328
| style=white-space:nowrap| 13?? - 1328
| Son of Naḥwi Mansur, grandson of Mansur ʿUmar
| Son of Naḥwi Mansur, grandson of Mansur ʿUmar
|-
|-
| 12
| 12
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān [[Sabr ad-Din I|'''SabiradDīn Maḥamed''' "Waqōyi" Naḥwi]]
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān [[Sabr ad-Din I|'''SabiradDīn Maḥamed''' "Waqōyi" Naḥwi]]
| style=white-space:nowrap| 1328–1332
| style=white-space:nowrap| 1328 - 1332
| Son of Naḥwi Mansur, defeated by Emperor [[Amde Seyon]] of Abyssinia, who replaced him with his brother JamaladDīn as a vassal.
| Son of Naḥwi Mansur, defeated by Emperor [[Amde Seyon]] of Abyssinia, who replaced him with his brother JamaladDīn as a vassal.
|-
|-
| 13
| 13
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān [[Jamal ad-Din I|'''JamaladDīn''' Naḥwi]]
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān [[Jamal ad-Din I|'''JamaladDīn''' Naḥwi]]
| style=white-space:nowrap| 1332–13??
| style=white-space:nowrap| 1332 - 13??
| Son of Naḥwi Mansur, vassal king under [[Amde Seyon]]
| Son of Naḥwi Mansur, vassal king under [[Amde Seyon]]
|-
|-
| 14
| 14
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān '''NasradDīn''' Naḥwi
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān '''NasradDīn''' Naḥwi
| style=white-space:nowrap| 13??–13??
| style=white-space:nowrap| 13?? - 13??
| Son of Naḥwi Mansur, vassal king under [[Amde Seyon]]
| Son of Naḥwi Mansur, vassal king under [[Amde Seyon]]
|-
|-
| 15
| 15
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān [[Ali ibn Sabr ad-Din|"Qāt" '''ʿAli''' SabiradDīn Maḥamed]]
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān [[Ali ibn Sabr ad-Din|"Qāt" '''ʿAli''' SabiradDīn Maḥamed]]
| style=white-space:nowrap| 13??–13??
| style=white-space:nowrap| 13?? - 13??
| Son of SabiradDīn Maḥamed Naḥwi, rebelled against Emperor [[Newaya Krestos]] after the death of [[Amde Seyon]], but the rebellion failed and he was replaced with his brother Aḥmed
| Son of SabiradDīn Maḥamed Naḥwi, rebelled against Emperor [[Newaya Krestos]] after the death of [[Amde Seyon]], but the rebellion failed and he was replaced with his brother Aḥmed
|-
|-
| 16
| 16
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān [[Ahmad ibn Ali|'''Aḥmed''' "Harbi Arʿēd" ʿAli]]
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān [[Ahmad ibn Ali|'''Aḥmed''' "Harbi Arʿēd" ʿAli]]
| style=white-space:nowrap| 13??–13??
| style=white-space:nowrap| 13?? - 13??
| Son of ʿAli SabiradDīn Maḥamed, accepted the role of vassal and did not continue to rebel against [[Newaya Krestos]], and is subsequently regarded very poorly by Muslim historians
| Son of ʿAli SabiradDīn Maḥamed, accepted the role of vassal and did not continue to rebel against [[Newaya Krestos]], and is subsequently regarded very poorly by Muslim historians
|-
|-
| 17
| 17
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān [[Haqq ad-Din II|'''Ḥaqquddīn''' Aḥmed]]
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān [[Haqq ad-Din II|'''Ḥaqquddīn''' Aḥmed]]
| style=white-space:nowrap| 13??–1374
| style=white-space:nowrap| 13?? - 1374
| Son of Aḥmed ʿAli
| Son of Aḥmed ʿAli
|-
|-
| 18
| 18
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān [[Sa'ad ad-Din II|'''SaʿadadDīn''' Aḥmed]]
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān [[Sa'ad ad-Din II|'''SaʿadadDīn''' Aḥmed]]
| style=white-space:nowrap| 1374–1403
| style=white-space:nowrap| 1374 - 1403
| Son of Aḥmed ʿAli, killed in the Abyssinian invasion of Ifat under [[Dawit&nbsp;I]] or [[Yeshaq&nbsp;I]]{{efn|He was killed either in 805 [[Islamic calendar|AH]] / 1402-3 CE during the reign of Dawit I (according to [[al-Maqrizi]]) or in 817 AH / 1414-5 during the reign of Yeshaq I (according to {{cite book |chapter=History of the Walashmaʿ |editor=Cerulli |date=1931 |title=R.R.A.L. |series=Ser. vi |volume=iv |page=45}}){{sfn|Trimingham|1976|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UfrcAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA74 74, note 4 explains the discrepancy in the sources]}} Some historians pick one of the two possible dates (e.g. Paul Henze selects 1403 in ''Layers of Time, A History of Ethiopia'' [New York: Palgrave, 2000], p.&nbsp;67).}}
| Son of Aḥmed ʿAli, killed in the Abyssinian invasion of Ifat under [[Dawit I]] or [[Yeshaq I]]<ref>He was killed either in 805 [[Islamic calendar|AH]] / 1402-3 CE during the reign of Dawit I (according to [[al-Maqrizi]]) or in 817 AH / 1414-5 during the reign of Yeshaq I (according to a History of the Walashmaʿ edited by {{harvnb|Cerulli|1931|p=45}}); see {{cite book |last=Trimingham |first=J. Spencer |author-link= J. Spencer Trimingham |date=2013 |orig-date= 1952|title=Islam in Ethiopia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UfrcAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA74 |location=London |publisher=Routledge |page=74, note 4 |isbn=9781136970221}} Some historians pick one of the two possible dates (e.g. Paul Henze selects 1403 in ''Layers of Time, A History of Ethiopia'' [New York: Palgrave, 2000], p.&nbsp;67).</ref>
|}
|}


==Sultanate of Adal==
==Sultanate of Adal==
{{main|Adal Sultanate}}
{{main|Adal Sultanate}}
[[Adal (historical region)|Adal]] was a general term for a region of lowlands inhabited by Muslims east of the province of [[Ifat (historical region)|Ifat]]. It was used ambiguously in the medieval era to indicate the Muslim inhabited low land portion east of the [[Ethiopian Empire]]. Including north of the [[Awash River]] towards [[Lake Abbe]] as well as the territory between [[Shewa]] and [[Zeila]] on the coast of [[Somaliland]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Josef |first1=Josef |title=Medieval Islamic Civilization |date=12 January 2018 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781351668224 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QepGDwAAQBAJ&dq=but+some+returned+and+ruled+further+east+of+yifat&pg=PT133}}</ref>{{sfn|Pankhurst|1997|p=52}}<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WU92d6sB8JAC&q=%22and+the+lowlands+between+shoa+province+and+the+port+of+zeila+in+present-day+somaliland%22&pg=PA20 |title=Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia |last1=Shinn |first1=David H. |last2=Ofcansky |first2=Thomas P. |date=2013-04-11 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=9780810874572 |language=en}}</ref> According to Ewald Wagner, Adal region was historically the area stretching from Zeila to [[Harar]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wagner |first1=Ewald |title=Legende und Geschichte: der Fath Madinat Hara von Yahya Nasrallah |publisher=Verlag}}</ref>{{sfn|Trimingham|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Kd3bAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT162 87]}} In the late fourteenth century Walasma princes [[Haqq ad-Din II]] and [[Sa'ad ad-Din II]] relocated their base to the Harari plateau in Adal forming a new Sultanate.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Baba |first1=Tamon |title=NOTES ON MIGRATION BETWEEN YEMEN AND NORTHEAST AFRICA DURING THE 13–15TH CENTURIES |publisher=Kyushu University |pages=81–82 |url=http://www.cdmy.org/cmyhs/cmyhs01.pdf}}</ref>
[[Adal (historical region)|Adal]] was a general term for a region of lowlands inhabited by Muslims east of the province of [[Ifat (historical region)|Ifat]]. It was used ambiguously in the medieval era to indicate the Muslim inhabited low land portion east of the [[Ethiopian Empire]]. Including north of the [[Awash River]] towards [[Lake Abbe]] as well as the territory between [[Shewa]] and [[Zeila]] on the coast of [[Somaliland]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Josef |first1=Josef |title=Medieval Islamic Civilization |date=12 January 2018 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781351668224 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QepGDwAAQBAJ&dq=but+some+returned+and+ruled+further+east+of+yifat&pg=PT133}}</ref>{{sfn|Pankhurst|1997|p=52}}<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WU92d6sB8JAC&q=%22and+the+lowlands+between+shoa+province+and+the+port+of+zeila+in+present-day+somaliland%22&pg=PA20|title=Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia|last1=Shinn|first1=David H.|last2=Ofcansky|first2=Thomas P.|date=2013-04-11|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=9780810874572|language=en}}</ref> According to Ewald Wagner, Adal region was historically the area stretching from Zeila to [[Harar]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wagner |first1=Ewald |title=Legende und Geschichte: der Fath Madinat Hara von Yahya Nasrallah |publisher=Verlag}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Trimingham |first1=J.Spencer |title=Islam in Ethiopia |date=13 September 2013 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781136970290 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kd3bAAAAQBAJ&dq=adal+bordered+on+shoa&pg=PT162}}</ref> In the late fourteenth century Walasma princes [[Haqq ad-Din II]] and [[Sa'ad ad-Din II]] relocated their base to the Harari plateau in Adal forming a new Sultanate.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Baba |first1=Tamon |title=NOTES ON MIGRATION BETWEEN YEMEN AND NORTHEAST AFRICA DURING THE 13–15TH CENTURIES |publisher=Kyushu University |pages=81-82 |url=http://www.cdmy.org/cmyhs/cmyhs01.pdf}}</ref>


The last Sultan of Ifat, [[Sa'ad ad-Din II]], was killed in [[Zeila]] after he had fled there in 1403, his children escaped to [[Yemen]], before later returning to the Harar plateau in 1415.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Abir |first1=Mordechai |title=Ethiopia and the Red Sea |date=28 October 2013 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=27 |isbn=978-1-136-28090-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7fArBgAAQBAJ&dq=returned+to+the+harar+plateau&pg=PA27}}</ref><ref name="Dekmejian">{{cite journal |last1=mbali |first1=mbali |title=Somaliland |journal=Basic Reference |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=217–229 |publisher=mbali |location=London, UK |year=2010 |doi=10.1017/S0020743800063145 |url=http://www.mbali.info/doc328.htm |access-date=2012-04-27 |last2=Dekmejian |first2=R. Hrair |s2cid=154765577 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120423062326/http://www.mbali.info/doc328.htm |archive-date=2012-04-23}}</ref> In the early 15th century, Adal's capital was established in the town of [[Dakkar]], where [[Sabr ad-Din III]], the eldest son of Sa'ad ad-Din II, established a new base after his return from Yemen.<ref name="Bradt">{{cite book |last=Briggs |first=Philip |title=Bradt Somaliland: With Addis Ababa & Eastern Ethiopia |year=2012 |publisher=Bradt Travel Guides |isbn=978-1841623719 |page=10 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M6NI2FejIuwC&pg=PA10}}</ref><ref name="Lewispd">{{cite book |last=Lewis |first=I. M. |title=A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics Among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa |year=1999 |publisher=James Currey Publishers |isbn=0852552807 |page=17 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eK6SBJIckIsC&pg=PA17}}</ref> By the late 1400s the Walasma sultans began to be challenged by the [[Harla]] emirs of the Harar plateau with rise of Imam [[Mahfuz]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hassen |first1=Mohammed |title=Reviewed Work: Futuh Al-Habaša: The Conquest of Abyssinia [16th Century] |publisher=Tsehai Publishers |page=192 |jstor=27828848 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27828848}}</ref>
The last Sultan of Ifat, [[Sa'ad ad-Din II]], was killed in [[Zeila]] after he had fled there in 1403, his children escaped to [[Yemen]], before later returning to the Harar plateau in 1415.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Abir |first1=Mordechai |title=Ethiopia and the Red Sea |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=27 |url=https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Ethiopia_and_the_Red_Sea/7fArBgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=returned+to+the+harar+plateau&pg=PA27&printsec=frontcover}}</ref><ref name="Dekmejian">{{cite journal | last1 =mbali | first1 =mbali | title =Somaliland | journal =Basic Reference | volume =28 | issue =2 | pages =217–229 | publisher =mbali | location =London, UK | year =2010 | url =http://www.mbali.info/doc328.htm | doi =10.1017/S0020743800063145 | access-date =2012-04-27 | last2 =Dekmejian | first2 =R. Hrair | s2cid =154765577 | url-status =dead | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20120423062326/http://www.mbali.info/doc328.htm | archive-date =2012-04-23 }}</ref> In the early 15th century, Adal's capital was established in the town of [[Dakkar]], where [[Sabr ad-Din III]], the eldest son of Sa'ad ad-Din II, established a new base after his return from Yemen.<ref name="Bradt">{{cite book|last=Briggs|first=Philip|title=Bradt Somaliland: With Addis Ababa & Eastern Ethiopia|year=2012|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|isbn=978-1841623719|page=10|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M6NI2FejIuwC&pg=PA10}}</ref><ref name="Lewispd">{{cite book|last=Lewis|first=I. M.|title=A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics Among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa|year=1999|publisher=James Currey Publishers|isbn=0852552807|page=17|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eK6SBJIckIsC&pg=PA17}}</ref> By the late 1400s the Walasma sultans began to be challenged by the [[Harla]] emirs of the Harar plateau with rise of Imam [[Mahfuz]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hassen |first1=Mohammed |title=Reviewed Work: Futuh Al-Habaša: The Conquest of Abyssinia [16th Century] |publisher=Tsehai Publishers |page=192 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27828848}}</ref>


Adal's headquarters were relocated in the following century, this time to [[Harar]]. From this new capital, Adal organised an effective army led by [[Imam]] [[Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi]] (Ahmad "Gurey" or Ahmad "Gran") that invaded the Abyssinian empire.<ref name="Lewispd"/> This 16th century campaign is historically known as the [[Abyssinian-Adal War|Conquest of Abyssinia]] (''Futuh al-Habash''). During the war, Imam Ahmad pioneered the use of [[cannon]]s supplied by the [[Ottoman Empire]], which he imported through Zeila and deployed against Abyssinian forces and their [[Portugal|Portuguese]] allies led by [[Cristóvão da Gama]].<ref name="Lewispd"/> Some scholars argue that this conflict proved, through their use on both sides, the value of [[firearm]]s like the [[matchlock]] [[musket]], cannons and the [[arquebus]] over traditional weapons.<ref>Jeremy Black, ''Cambridge Illustrated Atlas, Warfare: Renaissance to Revolution'', 1492-1792, (Cambridge University Press: 1996), p.9.</ref>
Adal's headquarters were relocated in the following century, this time to [[Harar]]. From this new capital, Adal organised an effective army led by [[Imam]] [[Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi]] (Ahmad "Gurey" or Ahmad "Gran") that invaded the Abyssinian empire.<ref name="Lewispd"/> This 16th century campaign is historically known as the [[Abyssinian-Adal War|Conquest of Abyssinia]] (''Futuh al-Habash''). During the war, Imam Ahmad pioneered the use of [[cannon]]s supplied by the [[Ottoman Empire]], which he imported through Zeila and deployed against Abyssinian forces and their [[Portugal|Portuguese]] allies led by [[Cristóvão da Gama]].<ref name="Lewisapd">I.M. Lewis, ''A pastoral democracy: a study of pastoralism and politics among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa'', (LIT Verlag Münster: 1999), p.17</ref> Some scholars argue that this conflict proved, through their use on both sides, the value of [[firearm]]s like the [[matchlock]] [[musket]], cannons and the [[arquebus]] over traditional weapons.<ref>Jeremy Black, ''Cambridge Illustrated Atlas, Warfare: Renaissance to Revolution'', 1492-1792, (Cambridge University Press: 1996), p.9.</ref>

The Walashma sultans of Ifant and Adal also apparently had a fair taste for luxury, the commercial relations that existed between the [[Adal Sultanate]] and the rulers of the [[Arabian Peninsula|Arab peninsula]] allowed Muslims to obtain luxury items that Christian Ethiopians, whose relations with the outside world were still blocked, could not acquire, a Christian document describing [[Badlay ibn Sa'ad ad-Din|Sultan Badlay]] relates: <blockquote>"''And the robes [of the sultan] and those of his leaders were adorned with silver and shone on all sides. And the dagger which he [the sultan] carried at his side was richly adorned with gold and precious stones; and his amulet was adorned with drops of gold; and the inscriptions on the amulet were of gold paint. And his parasol came from the land of Syria and it was such beautiful work that those who looked at it marveled, and winged serpents were painted on it.''"<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fasi |first=M. El |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sdjfwGxt0e0C&dq=sabr+ad-din+Adal&pg=PA622 |title=L'Afrique du VIIe au XIe siècle |date=1990 |publisher=UNESCO |isbn=978-92-3-201709-3 |pages=623 |language=fr}}</ref></blockquote>


==Sultans of Adal==
==Sultans of Adal==
Zeile 141: Zeile 135:
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān [[Sabr ad-Din II|'''SabiradDīn''' SaʿadadDīn]]
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān [[Sabr ad-Din II|'''SabiradDīn''' SaʿadadDīn]]
| style=white-space:nowrap| 1415–1422
| style=white-space:nowrap| 1415–1422
| Son of SaʿadadDīn Aḥmed, He returned to the Horn of Africa from Yemen to reclaim his father's realm. He subsequently became the first ruler and founder of the new Adal dynasty winning many victories before dying of natural causes.
| Son of SaʿadadDīn Aḥmed, He returned to the Horn of Africa from Yemen to reclaim his father's realm. He subsequently became the first ruler and founder of the new Adal dynasty winning some early victories before being soundly defeated by Emperor [[Yeshaq I]].
|-
|-
| 2
| 2
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān [[Mansur ad-Din of Adal|'''Mansur''' SaʿadadDīn]]
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān [[Mansur ad-Din of Adal|'''Mansur''' SaʿadadDīn]]
| style=white-space:nowrap| 1422–1424
| style=white-space:nowrap| 1422–1424
| Son of SaʿadadDīn Aḥmed. Him and his brother Muhammad are said to have been captured by [[Yeshaq I]]
| Son of SaʿadadDīn Aḥmed. He launched an expedition against [[Dawit I]], killing him at the [[Battle of Yedaya]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Budge E.a. Wallis |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.499166 |title=History Of Ethiopia Nubia And Abyssinia |date=1828 |pages=302}}</ref>{{sfn|Pankhurst|1997|p=57}}
|-
|-
| 3
| 3
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān [[Jamal ad-Din II|'''JamaladDīn''' SaʿadadDīn]]
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān [[Jamal ad-Din II|'''JamaladDīn''' SaʿadadDīn]]
| style=white-space:nowrap| 1424–1433
| style=white-space:nowrap| 1424–1433
| Son of SaʿadadDīn Aḥmed. He won numerous important battles against [[Yeshaq I]] before killing him in the battle of Harjah. Famed for piety and justice he was killed by jealous cousins in 1433.
| Said to have won numerous important battles against his enemies{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}} before his forces were defeated after an exhausting retreat to protect the capital.
|-
|-
| 4
| 4
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān [[Badlay ibn Sa'ad ad-Din|'''Sihab ad-Din Ahmad Badlay''' "Arwe Badlay"]]
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān [[Badlay ibn Sa'ad ad-Din|'''Sihab ad-Din Ahmad Badlay''' "Arwe Badlay"]]
| style=white-space:nowrap| 1433–1445
| style=white-space:nowrap| 1433–1445
| Son of SaʿadadDīn Aḥmed, also known as "Arwe Badlay" ("Badlay the beast"). Badlay embarked on a full scale conquest of Abyssinia successfully invaded the [[Ethiopian Empire]] and capturing [[Bale Province, Ethiopia|Bali]] before being killed by the forces of [[Zara Yaqob]] at the [[Battle of Gomit]]. Badlay also founded a new capital at Dakkar, near Harar.
| Son of SaʿadadDīn Aḥmed, also known as "Arwe Badlay" ("Badlay the beast"). Badlay turned the tide of war against the Abyssinians and successfully invaded the [[Ethiopian Empire]] to expand the power & reach of Adal. Badlay founded a new capital at Dakkar, near Harar. He was killed by the outnumbered forces of [[Zara Yaqob]] at the [[Battle of Gomit]]
|-
|-
| 5
| 5
Zeile 166: Zeile 160:
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān [[Shams ad-Din ibn Muhammad|'''ShamsadDin''' Maḥamed]]
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān [[Shams ad-Din ibn Muhammad|'''ShamsadDin''' Maḥamed]]
| style=white-space:nowrap| 1472–1488
| style=white-space:nowrap| 1472–1488
| Son of Maḥamed AḥmedudDīn, he attacked the Emperor [[Eskender]] of Abyssinia army in 1479, and slaughtered the majority of his army.
| Son of Maḥamed AḥmedudDīn, he was attacked by Emperor [[Eskender]] of Abyssinia in 1479, who sacked Dakkar and destroyed much of the city, though the Abyssinians failed to occupy the city.
|-
|-
| 7
| 7
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān [[Muhammad ibn Azhar ad-Din|'''Maḥamed''' ʿAsharadDīn]]
| style=white-space:nowrap| Sulṭān [[Muhammad ibn Azhar ad-Din|'''Maḥamed''' ʿAsharadDīn]]
| style=white-space:nowrap| 1488–1518
| style=white-space:nowrap| 1488–1518
| Great-grandson of SaʿadadDīn Aḥmed of Ifat, he continued to raid the Abyssinians especially during [[Lent]] with [[Mahfuz]] enslaving innumerable numbers of Abyssinians and Killing King [[Na’od]]. He was assassinated after a failed campaign in 1518
| Great-grandson of SaʿadadDīn Aḥmed of Ifat, he continued to fight to liberate Dawaro along with Garad [[Mahfuz|Maḥfūẓ]] of Zeila. He was assassinated after a disastrous campaign in 1518 and the death of Garad Maḥfūẓ.
|-
|-
| 8
| 8
| style=white-space:nowrap| [[Mahfuz|Sultan Maḥamed Abūbakar Maḥfūẓ]]
| style=white-space:nowrap| [[Mahfuz|Sultan Maḥamed Abūbakar Maḥfūẓ]]
| style=white-space:nowrap| 1518–1519
| style=white-space:nowrap| 1518–1519
| Seized the throne, sparking a conflict between the Karanle and Walashma
| Very popular leader who attempted to recapture Fatagar
|-
|-
| 9
| 9
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|-
|-
| 10
| 10
| style=white-space:nowrap| [[Garad Abun Adashe|Garad Abogn Adish]]
| style=white-space:nowrap| [[Garad Abun Adashe]]
| style=white-space:nowrap| 1519–1525
| style=white-space:nowrap| 1519–1525
| Successor to Maḥamed Abūbakar Maḥfūẓ
| Successor to Maḥamed Abūbakar Maḥfūẓ and the Karanle party of the struggle for the throne.
|-
|-
| 11
| 11
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{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | |001 |
{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | |001 |
001='''[[Umar Walasma|Umar Walashma]]'''<br><small>{{r.|1185|1228}}</small>|boxstyle_001=background-color:#FFFFE0}}
001='''Umar Walashma'''<br><small>{{r.|1185|1228}}</small>|boxstyle_001=background-color:#FFFFE0}}


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*[[Somali aristocratic and court titles]]
*[[Somali aristocratic and court titles]]
*[[Ethiopian aristocratic and court titles]]
*[[Ethiopian aristocratic and court titles]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist|2}}


===Works cited===
===Works cited===
*{{cite journal|last1=Cerulli|first1=Enrico|author1-link=Enrico Cerulli|date=1931|title=Documenti arabi per la storia dell'Etiopia|journal=Memorie della Reale Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei|volume=6|issue=4|pages=39–101|oclc=4178469}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Cerulli|first1=Enrico|author1-link=Enrico Cerulli|date=1931|title=Documenti arabi per la storia dell'Etiopia|journal=Memorie della Reale Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei|volume=6|issue=4|pages=39–101|oclc=4178469}}
*{{Cite book |last=Pankhurst |first=Richard |title=The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century |date=1997 |publisher=The Red Sea Press |isbn=978-0-932415-19-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zpYBD3bzW1wC}}
<!--Multiple editions based on Google links, ISBNs, etc. Added OCLC were I could.-->
*{{cite book |last1=Trimingham |first1=John Spencer |year=1952 |title=Islam in Ethiopia |publisher=Oxford University Press |oclc=3472650 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B4NHAQAAIAAJ}}
*{{cite book |last1=Trimingham |first1=John Spencer |date=1965 |title=Islam in Ethiopia |publisher=Frank Cass & Company |isbn=9780714617312 |oclc=546800 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XbVmNAAACAAJ}}
*{{cite book |last=Trimingham |first=J. Spencer |date=1976 |orig-date=1952 |title=Islam in Ethiopia |location=London |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781136970221 |oclc=858861432 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UfrcAAAAQBAJ}}<!--OCLC says 1976, Google says 2013, Internals says 1976 reprint.-->
*{{cite book |last1=Trimingham |first1=J. Spencer |date=Sep 13, 2013 |title=Islam in Ethiopia |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781136970290 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kd3bAAAAQBAJ}}<!--Typical Google errors, ISBN and date do not match internals.-->


==Further reading==
==Further reading==
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Walashma dynasty}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Walashma dynasty}}
[[Category:Walashma dynasty| ]]
<nowiki>[[:Category:Walashma dynasty| ]]
[[Category:Monarchies of Ethiopia]]
[[:Category:History of Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Somaliland noble families]]
[[:Category:Somaliland noble families]]
[[Category:African royal families]]
[[:Category:African royal families]]
[[Category:1185 establishments]]
[[:Category:1185 establishments]]
[[Category:12th-century establishments in Africa]]
[[:Category:12th-century establishments in Africa]]
[[Category:1559 disestablishments in Africa]]
[[:Category:1559 disestablishments in Africa]]
[[Category:Adal Sultanate]]
[[:Category:Adal Sultanate]]
[[Category:Medieval history of Somalia]]
[[:Category:Medieval Somalia]]</nowiki>
[[Category:History of Islam in Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Islam in Eritrea]]
[[Category:Islam in Djibouti]]
[[Category:Islam in Somalia]]
[[Category:Islam in Somaliland]]

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Vorlage:Pp Vorlage:Short description The Walashma dynasty was a medieval Muslim dynasty of the Horn of Africa founded in Ifat (modern eastern Shewa).[1] Founded in the 13th century, it governed the Ifat and Adal Sultanates in what are present-day Somalia, Djibouti and eastern Ethiopia.[2]

Genealogical traditions

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The Walashma princes of Ifat and Adal claimed to possessed Arab genealogical traditions.[3][4] In terms of lineage, Walashma traditions trace descent from Banu Makhzum tribe by El Maqrisi. But Ifat Sultanate trace descent from Akīl ibn Abī Tālib, the brother of the Caliph ʿAlī and Djaʿfar ibn Abī Tālib. The latter was among the earliest Muslims to settle in the Horn region. However, the semi-legendary apologetic History of the Walasma asserts that ʿUmar ibn-Dunya-hawz had as a progenitor Caliph ʿAlī's son al-Hasan.[3] This is not supported by both Maqrizi and the chronicle of the Walashma. But ʿUmar ibn-Dunya-hawz, whom both assert was the founder of the dynasty, was of Quraysh or Hashimite origin.[4][5] Fourteenth century Arab historian Ibn Khaldun mentions the ancestors of Walasma were once tributary to the Kingdom of Damot.[6]

However, most historians regard the Walashma dynasty to be of local origin descending from Yusuf bin Ahmad al-Kawneyn, a Somali Sheikh. Enrico Cerulli and J. Spencer Trimingham considers them to be ethnic Somali-Argobbas.[7][8] Walashma are historically tied to the ancestors of Argobba the people of Doba.[9] The Harari people also claim to be associated with the Walasma.[10] Bahru Zewde, Richard Pankhurst, Djibril Niane and others regard the Walasma Sultans of Ifat and Adal to be predominantly Argobba and Harari.[11][12][13][14] Enrico Cerulli asserts that one of the ancestors of ʿUmar ibn DunyaHuz was the 10th century Somali saint "Aw" Barkhadle from Arabia.[15][16][17] J. Spencer Trimingham considers this to be unlikely, as according to local traditions he lived for over 500 years and died in the early 16th century.[18][19]

Walasma dynasty of Ifat initiated a series of marriage alliances with the leaders of Adal, according to the chronicle "Conquest of Abyssinia" by Arab faqih, Harla lords descendant from the last Walasma ruler of Ifat Sa'ad ad-Din II participated in the sixteenth century Ethiopian–Adal War.[20][21] The last known Walasma member in Adal was Barakat ibn Umar Din of Harar during the sixteenth century.[22] The Kabirto of Harla as well as Doba who originate from the Walasma dynasty were overthrown in 1769 by the Mudaito dynasty of Afar in Aussa (modern Afar Region), the descendant of Kabirto shaykh Kabir Hamza, preserved their history through manuscripts.[23][24][25]

The title Walasma was still used in Ifat province as late as the nineteenth century with governors of that region claiming descent from the old dynasty.[26] In 1993 Mohammed Saleh who professed his ancestors were the Argobba Walasma of Ifat revealed that his progenitors were traders of the Shewa-Harar route for centuries.[27]

Language

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Historians state the language spoken by the people of Adal as well as its rulers the Imams and Sultans would closely resemble contemporary Harari language.[28][29][30] The 19th-century Ethiopian historian Asma Giyorgis suggests that the Walashma themselves spoke Arabic.[31][32]

Sultanate of Ifat

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During the end of the 13th century, northern Hararghe was seat of a Muslim sultanate named under the rule of Makhzumi dynasty.[33] A contemporary source describes the sultanate being torn apart by internal strafe and weakened by struggles with neighboring Muslim states. In 1278 one of these neighboring states, named Ifat in eastern Shewa, led by the Walashma invaded the Sultanate of Showa. After a few years of struggle the sultanate was annexed into Ifat. This annexation is usually attributed to ʿUmar, but he had been dead for 50 years by the time Showa was annexed. More likely, it was his grandson Jamal ad-Dīn or perhaps even his great-grandson Abūd. In 1288 Sultan Wali Asma successfully conquered Hubat, Adal and other Muslim states in the region. Making Ifat the most powerful Muslim kingdom in the Horn of Africa.[34]

In 1332, the Sultan of Ifat, Haqq ad-Din I was slain in a military campaign against the Abyssinian Emperor Amda Seyon's troops.[35] Amda Seyon then appointed Jamal ad-Din as the new King, followed by Jamal ad-Din's brother Nasr ad-Din.[36] Despite this setback, the Muslim rulers of Ifat continued their campaign. The Abyssinian Emperor branded the Muslims of the surrounding area "enemies of the Lord", and again invaded Ifat in the early 15th century. After much struggle, Ifat's troops were defeated and the Sultanate's ruler, King Sa'ad ad-Din II, fled to Zeila. He was pursued there by Abyssinian forces, where they slayed him.[37]

Sultans of Ifat

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Ruler Name Reign Note
1 Sulṭān ʿUmar DunyaHuz 1185 - 1228 Founder of the Walashma dynasty, his nickname was ʿAdūnyo or Wilinwīli
2 Sulṭān ʿAli "Baziwi" ʿUmar 1228 - 12?? Son of ʿUmar DunyaHuz
3 Sulṭān ḤaqqudDīn ʿUmar 12?? - 12?? Son of ʿUmar DunyaHuz
4 Sulṭān Ḥusein ʿUmar 12?? - 12?? Son of ʿUmar DunyaHuz
5 Sulṭān NasradDīn ʿUmar 12?? - 12?? Son of ʿUmar DunyaHuz
6 Sulṭān Mansur ʿAli 12?? - 12?? Son of ʿAli "Baziwi" ʿUmar
7 Sulṭān JamaladDīn ʿAli 12?? - 12?? Son of ʿAli "Baziwi" ʿUmar
8 Sulṭān Abūd JamaladDīn 12?? - 12?? Son of JamaladDīn ʿAli
9 Sulṭān Zubēr Abūd 12?? - 13?? Son of Abūd JamaladDīn
10 Māti Layla Abūd 13?? - 13?? Daughter of Abūd JamaladDīn
11 Sulṭān ḤaqqudDīn Naḥwi 13?? - 1328 Son of Naḥwi Mansur, grandson of Mansur ʿUmar
12 Sulṭān SabiradDīn Maḥamed "Waqōyi" Naḥwi 1328 - 1332 Son of Naḥwi Mansur, defeated by Emperor Amde Seyon of Abyssinia, who replaced him with his brother JamaladDīn as a vassal.
13 Sulṭān JamaladDīn Naḥwi 1332 - 13?? Son of Naḥwi Mansur, vassal king under Amde Seyon
14 Sulṭān NasradDīn Naḥwi 13?? - 13?? Son of Naḥwi Mansur, vassal king under Amde Seyon
15 Sulṭān "Qāt" ʿAli SabiradDīn Maḥamed 13?? - 13?? Son of SabiradDīn Maḥamed Naḥwi, rebelled against Emperor Newaya Krestos after the death of Amde Seyon, but the rebellion failed and he was replaced with his brother Aḥmed
16 Sulṭān Aḥmed "Harbi Arʿēd" ʿAli 13?? - 13?? Son of ʿAli SabiradDīn Maḥamed, accepted the role of vassal and did not continue to rebel against Newaya Krestos, and is subsequently regarded very poorly by Muslim historians
17 Sulṭān Ḥaqquddīn Aḥmed 13?? - 1374 Son of Aḥmed ʿAli
18 Sulṭān SaʿadadDīn Aḥmed 1374 - 1403 Son of Aḥmed ʿAli, killed in the Abyssinian invasion of Ifat under Dawit I or Yeshaq I[38]

Sultanate of Adal

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Adal was a general term for a region of lowlands inhabited by Muslims east of the province of Ifat. It was used ambiguously in the medieval era to indicate the Muslim inhabited low land portion east of the Ethiopian Empire. Including north of the Awash River towards Lake Abbe as well as the territory between Shewa and Zeila on the coast of Somaliland.[39]Vorlage:Sfn[40] According to Ewald Wagner, Adal region was historically the area stretching from Zeila to Harar.[41][42] In the late fourteenth century Walasma princes Haqq ad-Din II and Sa'ad ad-Din II relocated their base to the Harari plateau in Adal forming a new Sultanate.[43]

The last Sultan of Ifat, Sa'ad ad-Din II, was killed in Zeila after he had fled there in 1403, his children escaped to Yemen, before later returning to the Harar plateau in 1415.[44][45] In the early 15th century, Adal's capital was established in the town of Dakkar, where Sabr ad-Din III, the eldest son of Sa'ad ad-Din II, established a new base after his return from Yemen.[46][47] By the late 1400s the Walasma sultans began to be challenged by the Harla emirs of the Harar plateau with rise of Imam Mahfuz.[48]

Adal's headquarters were relocated in the following century, this time to Harar. From this new capital, Adal organised an effective army led by Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (Ahmad "Gurey" or Ahmad "Gran") that invaded the Abyssinian empire.[47] This 16th century campaign is historically known as the Conquest of Abyssinia (Futuh al-Habash). During the war, Imam Ahmad pioneered the use of cannons supplied by the Ottoman Empire, which he imported through Zeila and deployed against Abyssinian forces and their Portuguese allies led by Cristóvão da Gama.[49] Some scholars argue that this conflict proved, through their use on both sides, the value of firearms like the matchlock musket, cannons and the arquebus over traditional weapons.[50]

Sultans of Adal

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Name Reign Note
1 Sulṭān SabiradDīn SaʿadadDīn 1415–1422 Son of SaʿadadDīn Aḥmed, He returned to the Horn of Africa from Yemen to reclaim his father's realm. He subsequently became the first ruler and founder of the new Adal dynasty winning some early victories before being soundly defeated by Emperor Yeshaq I.
2 Sulṭān Mansur SaʿadadDīn 1422–1424 Son of SaʿadadDīn Aḥmed. Him and his brother Muhammad are said to have been captured by Yeshaq I
3 Sulṭān JamaladDīn SaʿadadDīn 1424–1433 Said to have won numerous important battles against his enemiesVorlage:Citation needed before his forces were defeated after an exhausting retreat to protect the capital.
4 Sulṭān Sihab ad-Din Ahmad Badlay "Arwe Badlay" 1433–1445 Son of SaʿadadDīn Aḥmed, also known as "Arwe Badlay" ("Badlay the beast"). Badlay turned the tide of war against the Abyssinians and successfully invaded the Ethiopian Empire to expand the power & reach of Adal. Badlay founded a new capital at Dakkar, near Harar. He was killed by the outnumbered forces of Zara Yaqob at the Battle of Gomit
5 Sulṭān Maḥamed AḥmedudDīn 1445–1472 Son of AḥmedudDīn "Badlay" SaʿadadDīn, Maḥamed asked for help from the Mameluk Sultanate of Egypt in 1452, though this assistance was not forthcoming. He ended up signing a very short-lived truce with Baeda Maryam I.
6 Sulṭān ShamsadDin Maḥamed 1472–1488 Son of Maḥamed AḥmedudDīn, he was attacked by Emperor Eskender of Abyssinia in 1479, who sacked Dakkar and destroyed much of the city, though the Abyssinians failed to occupy the city.
7 Sulṭān Maḥamed ʿAsharadDīn 1488–1518 Great-grandson of SaʿadadDīn Aḥmed of Ifat, he continued to fight to liberate Dawaro along with Garad Maḥfūẓ of Zeila. He was assassinated after a disastrous campaign in 1518 and the death of Garad Maḥfūẓ.
8 Sultan Maḥamed Abūbakar Maḥfūẓ 1518–1519 Seized the throne, sparking a conflict between the Karanle and Walashma
9 Sulṭān Abūbakar Maḥamed 1518–1526 He killed Garād Abūn and restored the Walashma dynasty, but Garād Abūn's cousin Imām Aḥmed Gurēy avenged his cousin's death and killed him. While Garād Abūn ruled in Dakkar, Abūbakar Maḥamed established himself at Harar in 1520, and this is often cited as when the capital moved. Abūbakar Maḥamed was the last Walashma sultan to have any real power.
10 Garad Abun Adashe 1519–1525 Successor to Maḥamed Abūbakar Maḥfūẓ and the Karanle party of the struggle for the throne.
11 Sulṭān ʿUmarDīn Maḥamed 1526–1553 Son of Maḥamed ʿAsharadDīn, Imām Aḥmed Gurēy put Maḥamed ʿAsharadDīn's young son ʿUmarDīn on the throne as puppet king in Imām Aḥmed Gurēy's capital at Harar. This essentially is the end of the Walashma dynasty as a ruling dynasty in all but name, though the dynasty hobbled on in a de jure capacity. Many king lists don't even bother with Walashma rulers after this and just list Imām Aḥmed Gurēy and then Amīr Nūr Mujahid.
12 Sulṭān ʿAli ʿUmarDīn 1553–1555 Son of ʿUmarDīn Maḥamed
13 Sulṭān Barakat ʿUmarDīn 1555–1559 Son of ʿUmarDīn Maḥamed, last of the Walashma Sultans, assisted Amīr Nūr Mujahid in his attempt to retake Dawaro. He was killed defending Harar from Emperor Gelawdewos' forces, ending the dynasty.

Family tree

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See also

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References

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Works cited

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  • Enrico Cerulli: Documenti arabi per la storia dell'Etiopia. In: Memorie della Reale Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei. 6. Jahrgang, Nr. 4, 1931, OCLC 4178469, S. 39–101.

Further reading

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  • Kifleyesus, Abbebe (2006). Tradition and Transformation: The Argobba of Ethiopia. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 84. Vorlage:ISBN.

Vorlage:Medieval Horn of Africa Vorlage:Somalia topics


[[:Category:Walashma dynasty| ]] [[:Category:History of Ethiopia]] [[:Category:Somaliland noble families]] [[:Category:African royal families]] [[:Category:1185 establishments]] [[:Category:12th-century establishments in Africa]] [[:Category:1559 disestablishments in Africa]] [[:Category:Adal Sultanate]] [[:Category:Medieval Somalia]]

  1. ↑ Ifat. Britannica (britannica.com).
  2. ↑ Dr. Ravi Jyee: WORLD ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF AFRICAN COUNTRIES. AFRO-ASIAN-AMERICAN CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, OCCUPATIONAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT (ACCORD), New Delhi, India 2016, S. 360: „Founded in 1285 by the Walashma dynasty, it was centered in Zeila. Ifat established bases in Djibouti and Somalia, and from there expanded southward to the Ahmar Mountains.“
  3. ↑ a b Ivan Hrbek M. Elfasi: Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century, General History of Africa, Volume 3. UNESCO, 1988, ISBN 92-3101709-8, S. 580–582 (google.com).
  4. ↑ a b Yohannes Mekonnen: Ethiopia: the Land, Its People, History and Culture. Yohannes Mekonnen, 2013, ISBN 978-1-4823-1117-4 (englisch, google.com).
  5. ↑ Taddesse Tamrat: Church and state in Ethiopia, 1270-1527. Clarendon Press, 1972, S. 124 (google.com).
  6. ↑ Ibn Haldun. Encyclopedia Aethiopica (sewasew.com).
  7. ↑ John Spencer Trimmingham: Islam in Ethiopia. 1952, S. 67 (google.com).
  8. ↑ Enrico Cerulli: Islam: Yesterday and Today translated by Emran Waber. Istituto Per L'Oriente, S. 323 (google.com).
  9. ↑ Abebe Kifleyesus: Tradition and Transformation The Argobba of Ethiopia. Harrassowitz, S. 44 (google.ca).
  10. ↑ Aklilu Asfaw: A short History of the Argobba. Annales d'Éthiopie, S. 174 (persee.fr).
  11. ↑ Bahru Zewde: A Short History of Ethiopia and the Horn. Addis Ababa University, 1998, S. 64 (google.com).
  12. ↑ Richard Pankhurst: The Ethiopian Borderlands Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century. S. 225 (google.ca).
  13. ↑ The Cambridge History of Africa. Cambridge University Press, S. 147–150 (org.za [PDF]).
  14. ↑ Djibril Niane: General History of Africa. Heinemann Educational Books, S. 427 (google.ca).
  15. ↑ Cerulli, Enrico (1926). Le popolazioni della Somalia nella tradizione storica locale. L'Accademia. "Cerulli suggests that the Saint "Aw Barkhdale" (Yusuf Al Kownayn) can be associated with "Yusuf Barkatla", ancestor of Umar' Walashma, founder of the Ifat dynasty"
  16. ↑ I. M. Lewis: Saints and Somalis: Popular Islam in a Clan-based Society. The Red Sea Press, 1998, ISBN 978-1-56902-103-3 (englisch, google.com).
  17. ↑ Somalia, Wasaaradda Warfaafinta iyo Hanuuninta Dadweynaha: The Writing of the Somali Language: A Great Landmark in Our Revolutionary History. Ministry of Information and National Guidance, 1972, S. 10 (englisch): “Aw Barkhadle, he was a native, who lived in about 1,000 years ago and is buried now in a ruined town named after him, Aw Barkhadle, which is a few miles away from Hargeisa.”
  18. ↑ J. Spencer Trimmingham: Islam in Ethiopia. 1952, S. 251 (google.com).
  19. ↑ R.E Drake-Brockman: British Somaliland. S. 219.
  20. ↑ IV Congresso Internazionale Di Studi Etiopici (Roma, 10-15 Aprile 1972). Accademia nazionale dei Lincei, S. 623 (google.ca).
  21. ↑ Amélie Chekroun: Le" Futuh al-Habasa": écriture de l'histoire, guerre et société dans le Bar Sa'ad ad-din. Université Panthéon-Sorbonn, S. 197–198 (archives-ouvertes.fr).
  22. ↑ J.Spencer Trimingham: Islam in Ethiopia. Taylor & Francis, S. 92 (google.ca).
  23. ↑ Daoud Alwan: Historical Dictionary of Djibouti. Scarecrow Press, S. 19 (google.ca).
  24. ↑ IslHornAfr 6 th Field Mission Report. University of Cophenhagen, S. 10.
  25. ↑ Alessandro Bausi: Ethiopia History, Culture and Challenges. Michigan State University Press, S. 83 (google.ca).
  26. ↑ Rexford Darkwah: The rise of the kingdom of Shoa 1813-1889. University of London, S. 259 (soas.ac.uk [PDF]).
  27. ↑ Ahmed Omer: Some Notes on Harar and the local Trade Routes: A Report on the view of ex-merchants of Shäwa (1839-1935). Annales d'Ethiopie, S. 141–142 (everythingharar.com [PDF]).
  28. ↑ Robert Ferry: Quelques hypothèses sur les origines des conquêtes musulmanes en Abyssinie au XVIe siècle. In: Cahiers d'Études africaines. 2. Jahrgang, Nr. 5, 1961, S. 28–29, doi:10.3406/cea.1961.2961 (persee.fr).
  29. ↑ John Harbeson: Territorial and Development Politics in the Horn of Africa: The Afar of the Awash Valley. Oxford University Press, S. 486 (jstor.org).
  30. ↑ Bernhard Lindahl: Local history of Ethiopia. Nordic Africa Institute, S. 37 (uu.se [PDF]).
  31. ↑ Asma Giyorgis: Aṣma Giyorgis and his work: history of the Gāllā and the kingdom of Šawā. Medical verlag, 1999, ISBN 978-3-515-03716-7, S. 257 (google.com).
  32. ↑ Lapiso Dilebo: An introduction to Ethiopian history from the Megalithism Age to the Republic, circa 13000 B.C. to 2000 A.D. Commercial Printing Enterprise, 2003, S. 41 (tind.io): "Like their direct descendants, the Adares of today , the people of ancient Shewa, Yifat, Adal, Harar and Awssa were semitic in their ethnic and linguistic origins. They were neither Somalis nor Afar. But the Somali and Afar nomads were the local subjects of the Adal."
  33. ↑ Ulrich Braukhaper: Islamic History and Culture in Southern Ethiopia: Collected Essays. LIT Verlag Münster, 2002, ISBN 978-3-8258-5671-7, S. 21 (google.com [abgerufen am 12. März 2017]).
  34. ↑ John Trimingham: Islam in Ethiopia. Oxford University Press, 1952, S. 58 (google.com).
  35. ↑ M. Th Houtsma: E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936. BRILL, 1987, ISBN 90-04-08265-4, S. 125–126 (google.com).
  36. ↑ The Glorious Victories, p. 107.
  37. ↑ J. Spencer Trimingham, Islam in Ethiopia (Oxford: Geoffrey Cumberlege for the University Press, 1952), p. 74 and note explains the discrepancy in the sources.
  38. ↑ He was killed either in 805 AH / 1402-3 CE during the reign of Dawit I (according to al-Maqrizi) or in 817 AH / 1414-5 during the reign of Yeshaq I (according to a History of the Walashmaʿ edited by Vorlage:Harvnb); see J. Spencer Trimingham: Islam in Ethiopia. Routledge, London 2013, ISBN 978-1-136-97022-1, S. 74, note 4 (google.com – [1952]). Some historians pick one of the two possible dates (e.g. Paul Henze selects 1403 in Layers of Time, A History of Ethiopia [New York: Palgrave, 2000], p. 67).
  39. ↑ Josef Josef: Medieval Islamic Civilization. Taylor & Francis, 2018, ISBN 978-1-351-66822-4 (google.com).
  40. ↑ David H. Shinn, Thomas P. Ofcansky: Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. Scarecrow Press, 2013, ISBN 978-0-8108-7457-2 (englisch, google.com).
  41. ↑ Ewald Wagner: Legende und Geschichte: der Fath Madinat Hara von Yahya Nasrallah. Verlag.
  42. ↑ J.Spencer Trimingham: Islam in Ethiopia. Taylor & Francis, 2013, ISBN 978-1-136-97029-0 (google.com).
  43. ↑ Tamon Baba: NOTES ON MIGRATION BETWEEN YEMEN AND NORTHEAST AFRICA DURING THE 13–15TH CENTURIES. Kyushu University, S. 81–82 (cdmy.org [PDF]).
  44. ↑ Mordechai Abir: Ethiopia and the Red Sea. Taylor & Francis, S. 27 (google.ca).
  45. ↑ mbali mbali, R. Hrair Dekmejian: Somaliland. In: Basic Reference. 28. Jahrgang, Nr. 2. mbali, London, UK 2010, S. 217–229, doi:10.1017/S0020743800063145 (mbali.info (Memento des Originals vom 23. April 2012 im Internet Archive) [abgerufen am 27. April 2012]).
  46. ↑ Philip Briggs: Bradt Somaliland: With Addis Ababa & Eastern Ethiopia. Bradt Travel Guides, 2012, ISBN 978-1-84162-371-9, S. 10 (google.com).
  47. ↑ a b I. M. Lewis: A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics Among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa. James Currey Publishers, 1999, ISBN 0-85255-280-7, S. 17 (google.com).
  48. ↑ Mohammed Hassen: Reviewed Work: Futuh Al-Habaša: The Conquest of Abyssinia [16th Century]. Tsehai Publishers, S. 192 (jstor.org).
  49. ↑ I.M. Lewis, A pastoral democracy: a study of pastoralism and politics among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa, (LIT Verlag Münster: 1999), p.17
  50. ↑ Jeremy Black, Cambridge Illustrated Atlas, Warfare: Renaissance to Revolution, 1492-1792, (Cambridge University Press: 1996), p.9.
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