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{{quote|Det arabiske oprør spreder sig fint, og de tyrkiske forbindelseslinjer vil blive svære at bevogte mod deres angreb. Det vedlagte foto af sheriffen af Mekka og hans proklamation er en af de måder vi har til at påvirke araberne til at desertere fra tyrkerne. Vi nedkaster disse papirer og pakker med cigaretter over de tyrkiske linjer fra fly. Proklamationen er en appel fra sheriffen til araberne om at forlade tyrkerne og slutte sig til krigen mod dem for frihed og arabisk uafhængighed. Der kan komme mange til, som følge af vor propaganda.|Brev fra Allenby til sin kone, 3. oktober 1917<ref>i Hughes 2004 p. 61</ref>}}
{{quote|Det arabiske oprør spreder sig fint, og de tyrkiske forbindelseslinjer vil blive svære at bevogte mod deres angreb. Det vedlagte foto af sheriffen af Mekka og hans proklamation er en af de måder vi har til at påvirke araberne til at desertere fra tyrkerne. Vi nedkaster disse papirer og pakker med cigaretter over de tyrkiske linjer fra fly. Proklamationen er en appel fra sheriffen til araberne om at forlade tyrkerne og slutte sig til krigen mod dem for frihed og arabisk uafhængighed. Der kan komme mange til, som følge af vor propaganda.|Brev fra Allenby til sin kone, 3. oktober 1917<ref>i Hughes 2004 p. 61</ref>}}


==== Supplies ====
==== Forsyninger ====
Allenby's strategic plans for the capture of the Beersheba line and the eventual capture of Jerusalem, required the complete determination of the commander, and efficient supply lines to support the mobility of his force. The offensive relied completely on efficient lines of communication.<ref>Wavell 1968 p. 239</ref> In order for two divisions to cross the arid country to attack Beersheba, elaborate arrangement for the supply of water, food and ammunition were necessary. Indeed the absence of water dictated that the attack had to be decisive, otherwise the mounted divisions would be forced to withdraw to water.<ref>Keogh 1955 pp. 135–6</ref>
Allenbys strategiske planer for erobring af Beersheba linjen og den senere erobring af Jerusalem, forudsatte hærchefens udelte beslutsomhed og effektive forsyningslinjer til at støtte hans styrkers mobilitet. Offensiven afhang fuldt ud af effektive kommunikationslinjer.<ref>Wavell 1968 p. 239</ref> For at to divisioner kunne krydse det tørre land og angribe Beersheba, var det nødvendigt at gennemføre omfattende forberedelser for at sikre forsyningen af vand, levnedsmidler og ammunition. Manglen på vand dikterede i sig selv, at angrebet skulle føres helt igennem ellers ville de beredne divisioner blive tvunget til at trække sig tilbage for at vande hestene.<ref>Keogh 1955 pp. 135–6</ref>


However, a series reconnaissances and work by field engineers in the apparently waterless desert, based on intelligence produced sufficient water, to the west of Beersheba for the horses, and the horses circling to the south in a wide arch.<ref>Bou 2009 pp. 171–2</ref><ref group="Note">The infantry attacked from the west. [Falls 1930 Vol. 2 sketch map 1 Situation at 18:00 28 October 1917]</ref>
En række rekognosceringer og arbejder af feltingeniører i den tilsyneladende tørre ørken, baseret på efterretninger, betød at der var tilstrækkeligt vand vest for Beersheba til hestene og til de heste som passerede syd om Beersheba i en bred cirkel.<ref>Bou 2009 pp. 171–2</ref><ref group="Note">Infanteriet angreb vest fra. [Falls 1930 Vol. 2 sketch map 1 Situation at 18:00 28 October 1917]</ref>
Records of the [[Palestine Exploration Fund|Palestine Exploration Society]] revealed that Khalasa had been the site of the Greek city of Eleusa, {{convert|13|mi|km}} south west of Beersheba and that Asluj had been a large town, {{convert|16|mi|km}} south of Beersheba. The likelihood of finding water at these two places was investigated by the Commander of the Royal Engineers, Desert Mounted Corps and confirmed during discussions with the inhabitants of the area. Plans were made to develop these water sources.<ref>Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 23</ref> A 48 hour reconnaissance from Tel el Fara was carried out from 23 to 25 September to survey the roads and water in the Esani and Khalasa areas.<ref>11th Light Horse Regiment War Diary September 1917 AWM4-10-16-24</ref>
Arkivalier fra Palestine Exploration Society afslørede, at Khalasa havde været der hvor den græske by Eleusa havde ligget, 20 km sydvest for Beersheba og at Asluj havde været en stor by 25 km syd for Beersheba. Sandsynligheden for at finde vand på disse to steder blev undersøgt af lederen af ingeniørtropperne i det beredne ørkenkorps og blev bekræftet under diskussioner med indbyggere i området. Der blev lagt planer om at udvikle disse vandressourcer.<ref>Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 23</ref> En 48 timers rekognoscering fra Tel el Fara blev gennemført mellem 23. og 25. september for at undersøge vejene og vandet i Esani og Khalasa områderne.<ref>11th Light Horse Regiment War Diary September 1917 AWM4-10-16-24</ref>


During the night of 20/21 October units of the XX Corps were sent forward to form supply dumps and to store water at Esani while Desert Mounted Corps engineers developed water at Khalasa and Asluj which had previously been reconnoitred by them. The standard gauge line to Imara was completed and the station opened on 28 October. The railway line was extended to a point {{convert|.75|mi|km}} north-north-east of Karm and a station opened there on 3 November. The light railway from the east bank of the wadi Ghazzeh at Gamli via Karm to Khasif was completed on 30 October. Between 22 October and 1 November water at Mendur to Sheik Ajilin was developed by the XXI Corps, at Esani, Imara, Karm and Khasif by the XX Corps and at Abu Ghalyun, Malaga, Khalassa and Asluj by Desert Mounted Corps. Cisterns in the Khasif and Imsiri area were filled with 60,000 gallons of water for the 53rd and 74th Divisions, to be supplemented by camel convoys.<ref>Massey 1919 p. 27</ref><ref>Blenkinsop 1925 p. 201</ref>
I løbet af natten mellem den 20. og 21. oktober blev enheder fra 20. korps sendt frem for at etablere forsyningslagre og oplagre vand ved Esani mens det beredne ørkenkorps ingeniører udviklede vandressourcer ved Khalasa og Asluj som de tidligere havde fundet frem til. Den normalsporede jernbane til Imara blev færdiggjort og stationen åbnet den 28. oktober. Jernbanen blev forlænget til et punkt 1,2 km nordnordøst for Karm og en station åbnet der den 3. november. Den lette jernbane fra østbredden af wadi Ghazzeh ved Gamli via Karm til Khasif blev færdig den 30. oktober. Mellem den 22. oktober og 1. november blev vandressourcer ved Mendur til Sheik Ajilin udviklet af 21. korps, ved Esani, Imara, Karm og Khasif af 20. korps og ved Abu Ghalyun, Malaga, Khalassa og Asluj af det beredne ørkenkorps. Cisterner i Khasif og Imsiri området blev fyldt med 227 m³ vand til 53. og 74. division, der skulle suppleres af kamelkonvojer.<ref>Massey 1919 p. 27</ref><ref>Blenkinsop 1925 p. 201</ref>


After the 2nd Light Horse Brigade moved to Bir el Esani and the ICCB to Abu Ghalyun, the work continued night and day on the development of water. These two brigades were supported by the field squadrons of the Anzac and Australian Mounted Divisions. Allenby personally inspected the watering points at Shellal works and watched the engineers cleaning out the wells at Khalassa and Asluj. His surprise arrival and keen interest gave those carrying out the difficult, dirty work a sense of the importance Allenby attached to their work.<ref>Keogh 1955 pp. 151–2</ref><ref>Powles 1922 pp. 132–3</ref>
Efter at 2. lette beredne brigade rykkede til Bir el Esani og imperiekamelbrigaden til Abu Ghalyun fortsatte arbejdet nat og dag med at udvikle vandressourcerne. Disse to brigader fik støtte af felteskadronerne fra de beredne Anzac og australske divisioner. Allenby inspicerede personligt vandingsstederne ved Shellal og så til mens ingeniører rensede brøndene ved Khalassa og Asluj. Hans overraskende besøg og store interesse gav de som udførte det vanskelige og beskidte arbejde en fornemmelse af hvilken betydning Allenby tillagde deres arbejde.<ref>Keogh 1955 pp. 151–2</ref><ref>Powles 1922 pp. 132–3</ref>


Regarding the importance of water, historian Matthew Hughes wrote: "[w]ater was the determining factor in the success or otherwise of Allenby's plan at the third battle of Gaza."<ref>Hughes 1999 p. 56</ref><ref group="Note">The return of the Australian Mounted Division to water at Karm has been describes as negating "the whole purpose of the flanking operation ... the attempt to cut off the enemy forces had failed" due to delays caused by water difficulties. [Hughes 1999 p. 57]</ref> Allenby acknowledged the problem on 21 August, saying "[t]he wells will probably be blown". He believed that there would be "some water" in the Wadi es Saba and Wadi el Imaleh but he was uncertain of the amount, acknowledging that it was "...the driest time of the year."<ref>Allenby to Robertson 21 August 1917 in Hughes 2004 p. 54</ref> Fortunately for the British plan, though, thunderstorms on 25 October had left pools of water over a wide area.<ref>Gullett 1941 pp. 406–7</ref> While all possible steps were taken to ensure full and regular supplies, Allenby's administrative instructions included the following caveat: "[t]hese calculations are based on the scale of full mobile rations. It may be necessary to double all distances and to place the force on half rations."<ref>Wavell 1968 p. 240</ref> Nevertheless, Hughes notes that "without the water at Beersheba the cavalry was reliant on the rail terminals at Karm or even Rafah."<ref>Hughes 1999 p. 58</ref>
Om betydningen af vandet skrev historikeren Matthew Hughes: "Vand var den afgørende faktor for succes eller ej for Allenbys plan ved det tredje slag om Gaza."<ref>Hughes 1999 p. 56</ref><ref group="Note">Returneringen af den beredne australske division for at vande ved Karm er blevet beskrevet som en negering af "hele formålet med flankeringsoperationen ... forsøget på at afskære fjendens styrker var slået fejl" på grund af forsinkelser som følge af vanskeligheder med vand. [Hughes 1999 p. 57]</ref> Allenby anerkendte problemet den 21. august, hvor han skrev: "brøndene vil formentlig blive sprængt". Men troede, at der ville være "noget vand" i Wadi es Saba og Wadi el Imaleh; men han var usikker på mængden og medgav at det var "...det tørreste tid på året."<ref>Allenby til Robertson 21. august 1917 i Hughes 2004 p. 54</ref> Heldigvis for den britiske plan havde tordenbyger den 25. oktober efterladt vandhuller i et stort område.<ref>Gullett 1941 pp. 406–7</ref> Mens der blev gjort alt muligt for at sikre tilstrækkelige og stabile forsyninger, indeholdt Allenbys administrative instrukser følgende advarsel: "Disse beregninger er baseret på fulde mobile rationer. Det han være nødvendigt at fordoble alle distancer og sætte styrken på halve rationer."<ref>Wavell 1968 p. 240</ref> Trods det bemærker Hughes, at "uden vandet i Beersheba var kavaleriet afhængig af jernbanens endestation ved Karm eller endda Rafah."<ref>Hughes 1999 p. 58</ref>


===== XX and XXI Corps transport =====
===== 20. og 21. korps transport =====
There was not enough transport to keep both the XX and the XXI Corps in the field at the same time. As a result, most of the lorries, tractors (excepting ammunition tractors), and camels of the XXI Corps holding the Gaza sector, were withdrawn and transferred to strengthen XX Corps' supply in the Beersheba sector, "striking flank." The movement of the XXI Corps transport to Shellal and Karm, along with the extension of the railway to Karm, was delayed until the last moment, to avoid drawing attention to that section of the front line.<ref>Keogh 1955 p. 136</ref><ref>Massey 1919 p. 24</ref><ref>Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 21</ref> Meanwhile, dumps of rations, ammunition and engineer stores were formed in the XXI Corps area in concealed positions.<ref>Keogh 1955 p. 137</ref>
Der var ikke tilstrækkelig transport til at holde både 20. og 21. korps i felten samtidig. Som følge heraf blev de fleste lastbiler, traktorer (undtagen ammunitionstraktorer) og kameler fra 21. korps (der holdt Gaza sektoren) trukket tilbage og overført til at styrke forsyningen af 20. korps i Beersheba sektoren. Flytningen af 21. korps transport til Shellal og Karm, sammen med forlængelsen af jernbanen til Karm, blev udskudt til sidste øjeblik, for at undgå at trække opmærksomhed til denne del af frontlinjen.<ref>Keogh 1955 p. 136</ref><ref>Massey 1919 p. 24</ref><ref>Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 21</ref> I mellemtiden blev der etableret lagre med rationer, ammunition og ingeniørudstyr i 21. korps område på skjulte steder.<ref>Keogh 1955 p. 137</ref>


==31 October to 7 November==
==31 October to 7 November==

Versionen fra 5. maj 2016, 19:53

x

Sydlige Palæstina-offensiven
Del af 1. Verdenskrig i Mellemøsten
Dato 31. oktober - 9. december 1917
Sted Palæstina
Resultat Sejr til tripelententen
Parter
 Storbritannien
 Frankrig 		 Osmanniske Rige
 Tyskland
Ledere
Storbritannien Edmund Allenby Tyskland Erich von Falkenhayn
Osmanniske Rige Fevzi Pasha
Tyskland Friedrich von Kressenstein
Involverede enheder
Egyptiske ekspeditionsstyrke
  • 21. korps
  • Beredne ørkenkorps
Yildarim armégruppen
  • 7. armé
  • 8. armé
Tab
25.000

Sydlige Palæstina-offensiven var en manøvrekrig, som begyndte den 31. oktober 1917 med Slaget om Beersheba under Sinai og Palæstina felttoget i 1. verdenskrig. Efter at den egyptiske ekspeditionsstyrke havde erobret Beersheba blev Gaza-Beersheba linjen stadig mere svækket, og 7 dage senere tvang den egyptiske ekspeditionsstyrke den 7. og 8. osmanniske armé til at trække sig tilbage. I løbet af den følgende uge blev de osmanniske styrker tvunget tilbage til Jaffa. Der fulgte tre uger med hårde kampe i de judæiske bjerge inden Jerusalem blev erobret den 9. december 1917. I løbet af de fem ugers næsten konstante offensiv blev fronten trængt 75 km tilbage.

Efter et koordineret angreb fra 20. korps og det beredne ørkenkors blev Beersheba i den østlige ende af fronten mellem Gaza og Beersheba erobret. Dagen efter, den 1. november 1917, begyndte slaget om Tel el Khuweilfe med en fremrykning nordpå fra Beersheba ind i de judæiske forbjerge af 53. division og den beredne ANZAC division. Fremrykningen ad vejen fra Beersheba mod Jerusalem truede også Hebron og Bethlehem. I løbet af natten mellem den 1. og 2. november fulgte det tredje slag om Gaza med Middelhavets kyst, hvor der blev udført begrænsede angreb af 21. korps mod stærkt befæstede og stærkt forsvarede stillinger. Den følgende dag. Den følgende dag havde de svære kampe syd for Tel el Khuweilfe ikke til hensigt at munde ud i en erobring af Hebron, men at skabe et tilstrækkeligt manøvrerum til indsættelse af 20. korps i et angreb i flanken af de centrale stillinger i den gamle Gaza til Beersheba linje. Kampene om vejen mellem Beersheba og Jerusalem tilskyndede også de tyrkiske hærchefer til at indsætte deres reserver i et forsøg på at holde ekspeditionsstyrken tilbage. Den 6. november blev slaget om Hareira og Sheria udkæmpet i centrum af den gamle linje, halvvejs mellem Gaza og Beersheba, og Hareira blev erobret, men det var først sent den følgende da at Sheria stillingen endelig blev erobret af 60. division efter et fejlslagent angreb ved Sheria af 4. lette beredne brigade fra den beredne australske division. 7. og 8. osmanniske armé var nu i fulgt tilbagetog fra resterne af den gamle Gaza-Beersheba linje.

Den 7. november, på andendagen af slaget om Hereira og Sheria, rykkede 52. division og imperiekavaleribrigaden gennem Gaza uden at møde modstand og angreb stærke bagtropsstillinger, som blev erobret den følgende dag med erobringen af Wadi Hesi.

Baggrund

Se også Se også: Dødvandet i Sydlige Palæstina.
Ved kanten af Negevørkenen

Efter de første to slag om Gaza stod det klar for de britiske hærførere, at der var brug for store forstærkninger "for at sætte genereal Murrays hær igen."[1] Murray gjorde det helt klart for krigskabinettet og imperiegeneralstaben i begyndelsen af maj, at han ikke kunne invadere Palæstina uden forstærkninger.[2] Samme måned forsikrede krigsministeriet ham om, at han skulle være forberedt på at modtage forstærkninger, som ville bringe den egyptiske ekspeditionsstyrke op på seks infanteri og tre beredne divisioner.[3] Da general Edmund Allenby overtog kommandoen over ekspeditionsstyrken i slutningen af juni manglede der stadig 5.150 infanteri og 400 yeomanry efter tabene i slagene om Gaza.[4]

I slutningen af sommeren 1917 var den britiske regerings politiske og strategiske interesser sammenfaldende med ekspeditionsstyrkens. Dette skyldtes til dels at den franske Nivelleoffensiv var slået fejl på Vestfronten og dels de tyske ubådes vellykkede kampagne mod den britiske skibsfart.[5] Tabet af skibe førte til alvorlig varemangel i Storbritannien, og selv om USA var trådt ind i krigen, ville deres militære bidrag ikke kunne mærkes foreløbig. Storbritannien var på vej ind i det fjerde år af en ekstremt bekostlige krig, og premierminister David Lloyd George var opmærksom på, at man måtte tage hensyn til hjemmefronten. Han mente, at en strålende militær sejr kunne styrke moralen i civilbefolkningen og sagde til Allenby, at "han ville have Jerusalen som julegave til den britiske nation". Lloyd Gorge gjorde det klart, at denne sejr var nødvendig for at "styrke udholdenheden og moralen" i Storbritannien.[6] Det britiske krigskabinet havde brug for en vellykket offensiv i Palæstina på et tidspunkt, hvor der ikke kom mange gode nyheder fra Vestfronten og hvor det så ud til at krigen kunne fortsætte ind i 1919. Hvis de kunne erobre Jerusalem, ville det lægge pres på det Osmanniske Rige, hvilket igen ville lægge pres på den tyske alliance, og samtidig styrke Storbritanniens langsigtede mål om at styrke sin indflydelse i Mellemøsten. I slutningen af oktober var den egyptiske ekspeiditionsstyrke klar til at angribe.[5][7]

Beslutningen om at indlede en stor offensiv i Palæstina i efteråret 1917 var også baseret på "meget fornuftige stategiske grunde". Det russiske kejserriges sammenbrud i foråret 1917 førte til at Rusland trak sig ud af krigen, som følge af den Russiske revolution, og frigjorde et stort antal osmanniske tropper, som havde været indsat på den russiske front. Disse tropper blev til rådighed til en styrkelse af fronten i Palæstina og var ved at blive samlet ved Aleppo sammen med tyske soldater og udstyr. De skulle indlede operationer med henblik på at generobre Bagdad, som var blevet erobret af briterne i marts 1917. Truslen mod Bagdag kunne lettere imødegås med en offensiv fra den egyptiske ekspeditionsstyrke i Palæstina fremfor at sende forstærkninger til general Frederick S. Maude, hvis hær i Mesopotamien holdt Bagdad besat. Briterne hentede forstærkningerne fra Thessaloniki-fronten, som krigsministeriet ønskede at nedprioritere til fordel for Palæstina.[8]

Allenby strategiske mål var at besejre den osmanniske hær i det sydlige Palæstina i en sådan grad, at osmanniske forstærkninger tiltænkt Bagdad i stedet blev sendt til Palæstina.[8] Den 5. oktober telegraferede general William Robertson, chefen for imperiegeneralstaben, imidlertid til general Allenby, at krigskabinettet ønskede at han skulle tvinge det Osmanniske Rige helt ud af krigen ved at tilføje det et "stort nederlag" efterfulgt af en besættelse af en linje mellem Jaffa og Jerusalem. Han ville få "friske britiske divisioner ... i et omfang af en hver seksten dage". Det var først efter starten på offensiven, at Allenby fik at vide, at en sådan forøgelse af hans styrke var usandsynlig.[9]

En militær jernbanebro over Wadi Ghazzeh, med vandreservoirer på den anden side. Ekspeditionsstyrkens heste blev vandet i dette område i september og oktober 1917

Allenby regnede med, at den osmanniske armé ville have 20 divisioner, hvor af ikke mere end 12 ville være ved frontlinjen. Men da disse kunne erstattes af den osmmaniske armé, kunne ekspeditionsstyrken ikke indsætte mere end 14 divisioner efter udbygningen af jernbanen fra Qantara til dobbeltspor, på grund af begrænsningerne i ekspeditionsstyrkens forsyningslinjer.[9] Mellem april og oktober 1917 byggede både ekspeditionsstyrken og den osmanniske armé jernbaner og vandledninger og sendte tropper, kanoner og store mængder ammunition til fronten.[10] I midten af oktober anerkendte en stabsvurdering i London styrken af de osmanniske forsvarere i det sydlige Palæstina, og at ethvert forsøg på at fjerne dem fra linjen mellem Gaza og Beersheba ville koste tre divisioner. Vurderingen anerkendte, at "Tyrken er en stædig kæmper i skyttegrave og vi må forvente, at han i alle tilfælde ville holde ud længe nok til at påføre os alvorlige tab ... vi må være klar til at forsyne general Allenby med yderligere tre divisioner som afløsning for svækkede divisioner.[11]

Slagmark

Linjen mellem Gaza og Beersheba blev forsvaret af begge sider under dødvandet i Sydlige Palæstina fra april til slutningen af oktober 1917. Ekspeditionsstyrkens front strakte sig 40 km fra Middelhavets kyst til Gaza og videre til et punkt på Wadi Ghazza nær El Gamli, omkring 22 km sydvest for Sharia og 33 km vest for Beersheba på sydkanten af filistrenes slette. Ved kysten var der et 3-6 km bredt bælte af sandklitter, som var uigennemtrængeligt for køretøjer. Mellem klitterne og de judæiske bjerge, som rejser sig 900 meter over havet, strakte der sig nogle bølgende sletter, som var 25-30 km brede. Sletterne blev gennemskåret af mange wadier, som blev til rivende floder under den våde periode om vinteren. Regionen var sparsomt befolket, og hver landsby var afhængig af sin brønd for vand, og hovedafgrøden var byg. Fra dette område var topografien den samme over 130 km nordpå hvor den undervejs blev til Sharons slette fra Jaffa og sluttede ved Karmelbjerget nær Haifa.[12]

Optakt

Den osmanniske armé i Palæstina under kommando af feltmarskal Erich von Falkenhayn var på næsten 50.000 mand, mens general Allenbys egyptiske ekspeditionskorps var på 76.000 mand.[13]

Den osmannisk/tyske styrke

Indtil juni 1917 var Sheria hovedkvarter for de tysk-ledede forsvarere, som holdt Gaza-Beersheba linjen.[14] I august 1917 var den 4. osmanniske armé struktureret således:

  • Fjerde armé (Syrien-Palæstina)
      • 3. kavaleridivision
    • 8. korps
      • 48. division
    • 12. korps
      • 23. division
      • 44. division
    • 15. korps
      • 43. division
    • 20. korps
      • 16. division
      • 54. division
    • 22. korps
      • 3. division
      • 7. division
      • 53. division[15]

Fjerde armé i Palæstina blev reorganiseret i to korps, 20. korps blev udvidet, så det udover 16. og 54. infanteridivision også kom til at omfatte 178. infanteriregiment og 3. kavaleridivision, mens 22. korps' tre divisioner forblev uændrede.[16] 20. korps havde hovedkvarter i Huj, mens 22. korps forsvarede Gaza med 3. og 53. division.[17] I juli bestod ottende osmanniske armé under Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein af seks infanteridivisioner og en kavaleridivision og havde en styrke på omkring 46.000 rifler, 28.000 sabler og 200 kanoner.[18][19]

Yildirim Armégruppen

Det osmannisk arabiske kamelkorps

Tyskland havde foreslået, at seks eller syv osmanniske divisioner, som var blevet frigjort som følge af at den russiske hær havde trukket sig ud af krigen, skulle angribe Mesopotamien med tysk støtte. Tyskland ville levere ammunition, udstyr, tropper og guld foruden en af Tysklands "mest fremragende soldater", Erich von Falkenhayn, og staben til et arméhovedkvarter. Disse tyske forstærkninger inkluderede det tyske Asien korps, tre bataljoner af "håndplukket og omhyggeligt trænet" infanteri, meget kraftigt støttet af artilleri, maskingeværer, morterer, fly og mekaniseret transport. Det osmanniske rige skulle bidraget med en nu syvende armé, bestående af divisioner overført fra fronterne i Kaukasus og på Balkan.[20]

Efter etableringen af Yildirim armégruppen i juni 1917 blev betydelige styrker indsat i Syrien og Palæstina, hvor de fortsatte med at forsvare fjerde armés stillinger. I Palæstina var allerede 3., 7., 16. og 54. infanteridivision, mens 26., 27. og 53. infanteridivision ankom i løbet af sommeren. 3., 7., 16. og 26. infanteridivision havde kæmpet ved Gallipoli og 3. kavaleridivision havde kæmpet på Kaukasus. Disse syv infanteridivisioner og en kavaleridivision dannede den nyligt etablerede ottende armé.[21][22]

Ved etableringen bestod Yildirim armégruppen af osmanniske tropper, som allerede var i Palæstina og Mesopotamien. Disse omfattede 19. og 20. division fra Galicien, den 24. og 42. division fra Dardanellerne, 48. division fra Kaukasus, 50. division fra Makedonien og 59. division fra Iskanderunbugtten. 1. og 11. division blev også overførst fra Kaukasus til Yildirim armégruppen og ankom i tide til at forsøge at generobre Jerusalem i henholdsvis slutningen af december og i marts 1918.[23][Note 1]

I august 1917 bestod Yildirim armégruppen af:

  • Syvende armé, Syrien (Mirliva Mustafa Kemal Atatürk)
    • 3. korps
      • 24. division (3.200 rifler)
    • 15. korps
      • 19. division (ca. 4.000 rifler)
      • 20. division
    • Asien korpset
  • 6. armé, Mesopotamien (Mirliva Halil Kut)
    • 13. korps
      • 2. division
      • 6. division
    • 18. division
      • 14. division
      • 51. division
      • 52. division
    • 46. division[15][24]
  • 42. division
  • 48. division[25]
    • 20. korps i Huj
      • 16. division (3.789 rifler)
      • 54. division (2.738 rifler)
      • 178. infanteriregiment
      • 3. kavaleridivision
    • 22. korps i Gaza
      • 3. division (3.698 rifler)
      • 7. division (2.886 rifler)
      • 53. division (3.100 rifler)[17][26]
  • 26. division (2.901 rifler)
  • 27. division (2.408 rifler 76% arabere)
  • 12. depotregiment (2.336 rifler 97% arabere)
  • 136. regiment (1.011 rifler)[24]

Den samlede infanteri "riffelstyrke" for de 12 enheder pr. 30. september var 28.067 plus de 4.000 i 19. division, hvilket gav en total på 32.067 støttet af 268 kanoner. De to regimenter i 3. kavaleridivision i området havde 1.400 sabler, mens 3. regiment i divisionen var indsat øst for Jordanfloden.[24] Disse tal for riffelstyrken pr. 30. september overså de 25% af riflerne i hver infanteribataljon, som gradvis blev udskiftet med maskingeværer fra 10. august 1917.[27]

I midten af september 1917 havde den osmanniske armé besluttet sig for ikke at forsøge at generobre Bagdad. Enver Pasha fulgte von Falkenhayns råd om at sende Yildirim armégruppen til Palæstina for at imødegå den stigende trussel, som Kress von Kressenstein havde rapporteret. Enver Pasha udstedte den 26. september ordre til fjerde armés hovedkvarter om at flytte til Damaskus, samtidig med at han delte området i to og overlod Cemal Pasha med ansvaret for Syrien og det vestlige Arabien. Den 2. oktober aktiverede Enver Pasha den nye ottende armé under Kress von Kressenstein og indsatte den sammen med syvende armé under Mustafa Kemal i Yildirim armégruppen under von Falkenhayn. Men sidst i september var Mustafa Kemal uenig i nogle af Enver Pashas beslutninger og den nye kommandostruktur. Han foreslog, at man skulle indtage en defensiv holdning som svar på den overlegne britiske forsyningslinjer, hvilket kunne sikre en fortsat numerisk overlegenhed i alle omstridte områder. Han mente, at denne ubalance bille gøre det umuligt for Yildirim armégruppen at gå i offensiven. Han foreslog en sammenlægning af syvende og ottende armé og tilbød at træde tilbage til fordel for Kress von Kressenstein. Flere uger senere tog Mustafa Kemal sin afsked og Fevzi Pasa overtog kommandoen over syvende armé, som stadig ved at blive samlet ved Aleppo.[28] I oktober 1917 var hovedkvarteret for ottende armé under Kress von Keressenstein ved Huleikat nord for Huj.[29]

Denne omfattende reorganisering begyndte at blive gennemført i oktober, men ved månedens slutning var det kun hovedkvartererne for syvende og ottende armé, som var klar til at gå i felten.[30] Den 1. oktober bestod ottende armé af 2.894 officerer, 69.709 mand, 29.116 rifler, 403 maskingeværer, 268 stykker artilleri og 27.575 dyr.[31] Mellem 10. og 28. oktober flyttede ottende armé tre infanteridivisioner til reservestillinger, selv om ansvaret for forsvaret af Beersheba forblev hos det osmanniske 3. korps, som bestod af den overvejende arabiske 27. division og 2. infanteriregiment, "bortset fra dens maskingeværer", samt to regimenter af den 3. kavaleridivision.[32]

Den 28. oktober blev der udsendt ordrer fra von Falkenhayns Yildirim armégruppehovedkvarter som gav Kress von Kressensteins ottende arme ordre til at overtage ansvaret for den vestlige, eller Gaza halvdel af den osmanniske frontlinje mens Fevzi Pasas syvende armé overtog ansvaret for den østlige halvdel, herunder Beersheba. 3. korps hovedkvarter, som ledede 27. infanteridivision og 3. kavaleridivision blev overført fra ottende til syvende armé. Den 16. og 24. infanteridivision samt den 19. infanteridivision, som var på vej sydpå blev også tildelt syvende armé.[33] Både 19. og 24. division ankom inden slaget begyndte.[23] Kress von Kressenstein beskrev senere den 27. infanteridivision, som forsvarede Beersheba, som 'dårligt uddannet, dårligt organiseret og bestående af arabere, som man skulle holde øje med'. Han anbefalede at divisionen blev nedlagt og dens soldater indsat andetsteds som forstærkninger. Han foreslog at 19. infanteridivision, Mustafa Kemals "berømte Gallipoli division," skulle afløse den i Beersheba.[32] Den osmanniske generalstab anså 19. infanteridivision for at være den stærkeste i den osmanniske hær. Divisionen, som havde været indsat i Galicien havde en usædvanlig stærk artillerikomponent. Lederen af Yildirim armégruppen, von Falkenhayn, beordrede 19. infanteridivision til at ligge i reserve nær Cemame [Jemame?] nærmere på Gaza end Beersheba.[32]

Den 31. oktober var der ni osmanniske infanteridivisioner og en kavaleridivision med en samlet styrke på op imod 45.000 rifler, 1.500 sabler og 300 kanoner, som forsvarede linjen mellem Gaza og Beersheba. Gaza blev forsvaret af ottende armés 22. korps, mens dens 20. korps forsvarede Sheria. Syvende arm´s 3. korps forsvarede Beersheba. Den nyligt ankomne leder af syvende armé, Fevzi Pasha, "spillede ingen aktiv ledelsen i de indledende faser af det tredje slag om Gaza og hele fronten forblev under Kress' kontrol."[34]

Stormbataljoner

Hver infanteridivision blev reorganiseret i tre infanteriregimenter, som hver bestod af tre infanteribataljoner og en stormbataljon. De specialiserede stormtrop-divisioner i den tyske hær blev aldrig etableret af den osmanniske hær.[35] Men stormbataljonerne blev oprettet efter ordre fra Enver Pasha den 1. september 1917 som led i en generel indførelse af Stoßtruppen lignende stormtropper i hele den osmanniske hær. 15. korps, første og fjerde armé etablerede henholdsvis 1., 2. og 3. stormbataljon. Derudover beordrede Enver Pasha hver af infanteridivisionerne i Yildirim armégruppen og i fjerde armé til at danne stormenheder bestående af de bedste officerer, underofficerer og mænd fra de bedste enheder i divisionen. Disse soldater skulle være under 27 år gamle, intelligente, sunde og stærke. Hver stormenhed fik en måneds træning i angrebstaktik, bedre rationer og et emblem hvorpå der var broderet en håndgranat.[36]

Fly

I løbet af oktober ankom der 56 fly fra nr. 301, 302, 303 og 304 eskadron i det tyske flyvekorps til Palæstina fra Tyskland. På dette tidspunkt var den 14. osmanniske eskadrilles A.E.G. to-sædede fly stationeret ved Kutrani.[37]

Karakteristik

Det er blevet hævdet, at efter Ruslands kollaps i 1917 blev forstærkninger, der var behov for i Palæstina, sendt til Kaukasus, hvilket afstedkom, at den osmanniske armé i Palæstina havde en lav moral. I en beskrivelse af situationen skriver Hughes, at "mange havde ikke fået brev hjemmefra i årevis. De ulykkelige tyrkiske rekrutter afventede den egyptiske ekspeditionsstyrkes angreb i 'sårbare telte' in 'fragile tents' uden 'noget til at forbedre deres humør'."[38] Dette skyldtes "at de osmanniske jernbaners tilstand var således, at osmannerne havde svært ved at opretholde en større styrke i Palæstina, uanset om det var med henblik på defensive eller offensive operationer." Der var en enkeltsporet jernbane, som strakte sig over 2.540 km med strækninger i normal eller smal sporvidde. De osmanniske kommunikationslinjer er blevet beskrevet som "forfærdelige".[39]

Den osmanniske armé i Palæstina i 1917 fortsatte med at fremvise de fleste af de kendetegn, som den havde haft i de første to år af krigen. Hæren var operationelt og taktisk aggressiv, og gennemførte til stadighed både defensive og offensive operationer og træning i realistisk og tidsvarende måde i både mindre og større enheder. Ifølge Erickson var divisioner opgaveorienterede til en række "specifikke taktiske missioner". Lederne var erfarne, højt uddannede og dygtige ledere, som "fortsatte med at fungere godt i det tredje år af en total krig på flere fronter".[40]

Men det er også blevet hævdet, at de osmanniske front-linje infanteribataljoner "fungere på omkring halv styrke". Det 21. infanteriregiment var den 26. oktober, følge den tyrkiske generalstabs arkiver, "på halv styrke i trænede mænd" og forstærkningerne kunne ikke holde trit med afgangen i form af syge og tab i kamp. Deres sidste slag havde været en afgørende sejr syv måneder tidligere i april, udkæmpet fra stærke befæstninger. Kaptajn Hüseyin Hüsnü Emir, vicestabschef i Yildirim armégruppen, hævdede, at 16. division, som havde 200 officerer, 400 underofficerer og 10.900 mand i september 1916, var blevet reduceret til kun 5.017 officerer og mænd den 15. oktober 1917. De tre infanteriregimenter i dens 78, infanteriregiment var på omkring 400 mand hver, ud af en målsat styrke på 750 pr. bataljon. Han hævdede også, at hver division i Gaza stillingerne var under 50% i styrke, men der er ingen omtale af tilstanden i stormbataljonerne. Hertil kom, at der blev rapporteret om kroniske fejlslag som følge af tab og mangel på mandskab, som blev forstærket af sygdom og desertering. Den 3. august 1917 rapporterede Yildirim armégruppen at den manglede omkring 70.000 soldater, og selv med de planlagte forstærkninger ville den stadig mangle 40.000 mand.[41] Ifølge Hussein Husni's Yilderim, "i september 1917 rapporterede Mustafa Kemal, chefen for syvende armé i Palæstina, til Enver Pasha at halvdelen af de tropper der ankom med 54. division enten var for unge eller gamle. En bataljon i en de bedste divisioner forlod Istanbul med 1.000 mand, men ankom til Aleppo med kun 500 mand. [note 76 Hussein Husni, Yilderim, Part 1, kap. 4 (også appendix 16).] "[42]

Ifølge Massey var rationer og lederskab i divisionerne, som stod overfor tropper fra det britiske imperium også dårlige og skrev at "hvis den osmanniske armé ... havde været godt ledet og ordentligt forsynet" skulle den osmanniske 3., 7., 16., 19., 20., 24., 26., 27., 53. og 54. division samt 3. kavaleridivision have været i stand til at forsvare sig mere kraftigt.[43]

Gaza-Beersheba linjen

Den vestlige del af Gaza–Beersheba linjen

Efter april var stillingerne i Gaza blevet forstærket. Mange af husene lå på en højderyg med haver omgivet af høje kaktushække, som omgav et område, der havde en dybde på mindst 1½ km. Udover dette formidable område skulle de 11 km skyttegrave vest for byen angribes med infanteri, da Allenby ikke havde tilstrækkeligt med artilleri til at løse opgaven.[44] Både Sheria og Beersheba var særligt kraftigt befæstet af den osmanniske styrke. Der var etableret permanente stillinger med skyttegrave og pigtråd fra havet ved Gaza til Shellal ved Wadi Ghazzeh, som blev forsvaret af infanteri.[45][46] En osmannisk vurdering angav, at på grund af knapheden på vand kunne et angreb på Beersheba højest gennemføres med en kavaleri og en infanteridivision.[47][Note 2]

De velplacerede osmanniske stillinger var anhængige af, at der var velforskansede osmanniske soldater, som var klar til at udnytte enhver mulighed for modangreb. Både Gaza og Beersheba var så godt som omringet af forskansninger. Et angreb var ventet, og den osmanniske armé kendte til ekspeditionsstyrkens forberedelser til et angreb.[22]

Styrken af Yildirim armégruppens enheder, som holdt linjen mellem Gaza og Beersheba blev anslået til 40.000 rifler, omend antallet senere viste sig at være nærmere på 33.000 rifler, 1.400 sabler og 260 stykker artilleri, heri medregnet reserven i form af 19. division ved 'Iraq el Menshiye og 12. depotregiment i Hebron.[17][Note 3] Mens både Sheria og Beersheba var særlig kraftigt befæstede af de osmanniske forsvarede, var der permanente stærkt befæstede og pigtrådsbeklædte stillinger, som strakte sig fra havet ved Gaza til Shellal ved Wadi Ghazzeh.[45][46]

Den 31. oktober var forsvarsstyrken mellem Gaza og Beersheba blev forøget til ni divisioner og en kavaleridivision.[48] Yildarim armégruppen havde inden slaget placeret to arméer side om side på Gaza-Beersheba linjen. Til højre var ottende armé med hovedkvarter ved Huleikat nord for Huj placeret

22. korps under Refet Bey med hovedkvarter ved Jebaliye holdt de stærkt befæstede stillinger omkring Gaza med 3. og 53. division
20. korps under Ali Fuad Bey med hovedkvarter ved Huj holdt Sheria og linjen østpå med 16., 26. og 54. division
Armeéreserven med 7. division ved Deir Sneid og 19. division enten ved Iraq el Menshiye, 40 km nord for Beersheba og 30 km nordøst for Gaza, eller i et samlingsområde 32 km bag fronten.[22][48][49]

Gaza var blevet omdannet til en meget stærk fæstning med mange skyttegrave og pigtråd. Der var bygget en række stillinger fra Middelhavet og forbi Gaza ved Sihan, Atawineh, Abu Hariera-Arab el Teeaha og Beersheba over en strækning på 50 km til et punkt syd for Sharia.[12] Stillingerne strakte sig forbi jernbanen og havde "alle fordele ved udsyn over de lange nøgne skråninger, som en angriber må passere". Hinsides disse hovedstillinger var der et hul på omkring 13 km til stillingerne ved Beersheba hvor ørkenen minimerede truslen om et angreb fra ekspeditionsstyrken. Der var imidlertid bygget stærke forsvarsstillinger vest og sydvest for Beersheba med en garnison fra syvende armé på 5.000 til at beskytte områdets vigtige brønde,[18] støttet af en række stærkt befæstede bakker omkring Beersheba.[50]

Beersheba enden af Gaza–Beersheba linjen

Syvende armé til venstre under Fevzi Pasha var placeret –

3. korps ved Kauwukah eller i 20. korps reserve nær Kh. Jemmame øst for Huj (24. division) ved Beersheba (27., 16 division og 3. kavaleridivision) også ved Beersheba.[22][48][49]

Beersheba blev forsvaret af den 27. osmanniske division forstærket med bataljoner fra 16. og 24. division.[51] Her bestod befæstningerne af to række forsvarsstillinger. Den ydre række omkransede byen fra Gaza til Beersheba vejen hvor linjen passerede gennem det højtbeliggende område nordvest for Beersheba til Ras Ghannam. Placeret omkring 6½ km fra Beersheba var denne halvcirkel af stillinger kraftigt forskanset og beskyttet af pigtråd. Mod nordøst, øst og sydøst bestod den ydre ring af stillinger af en række skanser eller stærke poster på højderne Tel el Sakaty og Tel el Saba, foruden to sten blokhuse, som dækkede den nordlige bred af Wadi Saba. Den anden indre række af stillinger omgav fuldstændig byen Beersheba og krydsede Wadi Saba lige syd for jernbanebroen.[52] Inden slaget anbefalede Kress von Kressenstein at brøndene i Beersheba blev ødelagt og garnisonen trukket tilbage til bakkerne nord for byen, fordi han ikke mente, at der var nok tropper til at Beersheba kunne forsvares. Han hævdede, at fra bakkerne mod nord kunne Beersheba garnisonen angribe enhver bevægelse af ekspeditionsstyrken mod Hareira eller Sheria i flanken, men von Falkenhayn afviste dette forslag.[53]

Det britiske imperiums styrke

Den egyptiske ekspeditionsstyrke var blevet omorganiseret og styrket under Dødvandet i Sydlige Palæstina for at kunne overvinde de stærkt forstærkede og forskansede osmanniske styrker, som holdt Gaza til Beersheba linjen.[54] Allenby havde af krigskabinettet fået besked på at "ramme tyrkerne så hårdt som muligt", og besejre fjendtlige styrker hvor end de stillede sig i vejen for ekspeditionsstyrken. Han skulle begynde offensiven "så hurtigt som muligt i september" inden den osmanniske armé kunne omflytte deres styrker efter Ruslands udtræden af krigen. Robertson sikrede sig, at Allenby klar over, at der blev gjort alt hvad der var muligt for at bringe ekspeditionsstyrken op på fuld styrke både hvad angik soldater og udstyr, men der var "ikke for nærværende udsigt til at kunne sende Dem yderligere forstærkninger ... som er nødvendige for operationer hinsides en linje mellem Jaffa og Jerusalem."[55] På dette tidspunkt konkurrerede ekspeditionsstyrken om en fast mængde britiske ressourcer, som blev begrænset af de meget vellykkede tyske ubådsangreb på britisk skibsfart, med behov fra det Tredje slag ved Ypres, som var indledt den 31. juli. Men der var mere artilleri undervejs og fordoblingen af jernbanen var blevet godkendt den 21. juli.[56]

Ekspeditionsstyrkens kampstyrke var på 100.189 mand:

Det beredne ørkenkorps 745 officerer, 17.935 af anden rang i Anzac, Australske og Yeomanry beredne division
20. korps 1.435 officerer, 44.171 af anden rang i 10., 53., 60. og 74. division
21. korps 1.154 officerer, 34.759 af anden rang i 52., 54. og 75. division.[7][47][57] Styrken bestod af:

20. korps (generalløjtnant Sir R.W. Chetwode, Bart.)

10. division (generalmajor J.R. Longley)[Note 4]
29. brigade
30. brigade
31. brigade
53. division (generalmajor S.F. Mott)
158. brigade
159. brigade
160. brigade
60. division (generalmajor J.S.M. Shea)
179. brigade
180. brigade
181. brigade
74. division (generalmajor E.S. Girdwood)
229. brigade
230. brigade
231. brigade
Korpskavaleriregiment - 1/2. County of London Yeomanry
Korpsartilleri - 96. tunge artillerigruppe

21. korps (generalløjtnant Sir E.S. Bulfin)

52. division (generalmajor J. Hill)
155. brigade
156. brigade
157. brigade
54. division (generalmajor S.W. Hare)
161. brigade
162. brigade
163. brigade
75. division (generalmajor P.C. Palin)
232. brigade
233. brigade
234. brigade
Korpskavaleriregiment - sammensat Yeomanry regiment
Korpsartilleri - 97., 100. og 102. tunge artillerigrupper
20. indiske brigade (Brigadegeneral H.D. Watson)

Beredne ørkenkorps (generalløjtnant Sir H. Chauvel)

Beredne Anzac division (generalmajor E.W.C. Chaytor)
1. lette beredne brigade (brigadegeneral C. F. Cox)
2. lette beredne brigade (brigadegeneral G. de L. Ryrie)
Beredne newzealandske riffelbrigade (brigadegeneral W. Meldrum)
18. brigade kongelige hestartilleri
Beredne australske division (generalmajor Henry W. Hodgson)
3. lette beredne brigade (brigadegeneral L. C. Wilson)
4. lette beredne brigade (brigadegeneral W. Grant)
5. beredne brigade (brigadegeneral Percy Desmond FitzGerald/P. J. V. Kelly)
19. brigade kongelige hestartilleri
Beredne Yeomanry division (generalmajor G. de S. Barrow)
6. (brigadegeneral C. A. C. Godwin)
8. brigade (brigadegeneral C. S. Rome)
22. brigade (brigadegeneral P. D. FitzGerald)
20. brigade kongelige hestartilleri
Korpsreserve
7. beredne brigade (Brigadegeneral J. T. Wigan)
Essex batteriet, kongelige hestartilleri og brigade ammunitionskolonne
Imperie kamelkorpsbrigade (brigadegeneral C. L. Smith)
Hong Kong og Singapore kamelbatteri RGA.[58][59][60] Artilleriet i det beredne ørkenkorps blev i midten af september nedgraderet fra 18 punds til 13 punds kanoner, som Erickson karakteriserede som "endnu bedre".[60][61]
Hovedkvarterstropper
Armé kavaleri
Imperial Service kavaleribrigade (midlertidig brigadegeneral M. H. Henderson)
Kathiwar Signaltrop
124. indiske kavaleri feltambulance.[62] 21. korps sammensatte styrke på næsten en division bestod af 25. indiske infanteribrigade, en vestindisk bataljon, den franske Détachement français de Palestine og den italienske Distaccamento italiano di Palestina, og lå i lejr øst for 75. division i omegnen af Sheikh Abbas.[63]

I alt bestod den egyptiske ekspeditionsstyrke af 200.000 mand (inklusiv arabiske arbejdere), 46.000 heste, 20.000 kameler, over 15.000 muldyr og æsler og hundreder af artilleri piecer.[64] Ekspeditionsstyrkens officielle riffelstyrke den 28. oktober var 80.000 i infanteridivisionerne og imperie kamelbrigaden og 15.000 kavaleri inklusiv de beredne riffel og beredne infanteribrigader.[Note 5] Den "faktiske styrke ... [var imidlertid] omkring 60.000 og 12.000 henholdsvis."[65] Dette udgjorde et sammenligneligt forhold på 2:1 i infanteri, 8:1 i kavaleri og omkring 3:2 i artilleri.[17][Note 6]

Hovedparten af Allenbys infanteri var territorial divisioner, som var blevet mobiliseret ved krigens udbrud, og de fleste, om ikke alle bataljonerne havde nogle linjeofficerer og underofficerer. Nogle af divisionerne havde kæmpet mod den osmannniske hær under slaget om Gallipoli. 52. division ved Cape Helles, mens 53. og 54. division havde kæmpet ved Suvla Bay og 60. divisionen havde kæmpet på Vestfronten og ved Thessaloniki. 74. division var nyligt blevet dannet af 18 undertallige Yeomanry regimenter, som alle hadve kæmpet til fods ved Gallipoli. 10. division var en New Army division, som også havde kæmpet ved Suvla Bay og Thessaloniki.[66] Alle tre brigader i den beredne Anzac division og de to lette beredne brigader i den beredne australske division havde kæmpet mod den osmanniske armé ved Gallipoli.[67][Note 7]

Allenby gik med til at tage offensiven så snart forberedelserne var overstået og han havde syv infanteridivisioner klar til kamp.[68] I oktober ventede Allenby "på forstærkninger fra England."[69] Den 17. oktober skrev Allenby til Robertson, at 75. division var klar, men at 10. division havde omkring 3.000 tilfælde af feber og manglede sin "B" echelon af sin divisions ammunitionskolonne. Han havde håb om at divisionen ville være komplet og havde en kampstyrke på mellem 8-9.000 rifler "på dagen". Desuden havde Allenby været i tæt kontakt med kaptajnerne fra flåden mens han ventede på forstærkninger, for at sikre sig, at de personligt havde rekognosceret området så de "vidste præcis hvad de skulle gøre."[70]

Fly

Hærens flyvestyrker havde til opgave at udføre strategisk rekognoscering, rapportere om osmanniske reserve langt bag linjerne og gennemføre luftfotografering og luftangreb. Hærens jagereskadrille skulle yde beskyttelse mod fjendtlige luftangreb mens hærens bombeeskadrille var klar til at gennemføre bombeangreb. korpseskadrillerne, som var tilknyttet de to infanterikorps, gennemførte artilleri- og kontaktpatruljer foruden taktisk rekognoscering. Fotografering af fjendens skyttegrave blev i reglen gennemført dagligt af hærens flystyrker. En gruppe fly tilknyttet 20. korps var ansvarlig for at gennemføre artilleri- og kontaktpatruljer samt taktisk rekognoscering for det beredne ørkenkorps.[71]

Udover at der ankom britiske tropper, kom der alle typer krigsudstyr herunder svære kanoner og lastbiler samt tidssvarende hurtige fly, som erstattede de langsomme fly, som ikke kunne følge med de tyske Fokker og Albatross fly. De første af de nye R.E.8'ere ankom til Nr. 1 eskadrille den 17- oktober sammen med nye Martinsydes, udstyret med en 160 hk motor i stedet for de gamle 120 hk motorer. Som følge heraf skiftede herredømmet i luften gradvis væk fra osmannerne, som havde haft det siden Sinaifelttoget og over til ekspeditionsstyrken.[72][73][74]

Nye Bristol jagerfly ankom en eller to ad gangen og blev til 111. eskadrille og blev snart efter blev også 113. eskadrille etableret, og den overtog korpsoperationerne og afløste Nr. 1 eskadrille i noget af rekognosceringen af skyttegravene. Nr. 1 eskadrille blev i stedet til en bombeeskadrille. Nye piloter og observatører fra træningsskolen ankom til eskadrillerne i august. Nr. 1 eskadrille fik tilladelse fra de australske styrkers hovedkvarter til at have en reserve af piloter på 50% udover det normale. Den fulde værdi af denne forholdsregel blev først tydelig under luftkrigen i 1918.[75]

Sheriffens styrker

Allenby håbede på, at Lawrence af Arabien og sheriffen af Mekkas arabiske styrke kunne støtte et angreb i september, da han var klar over, at de indtil da ville være beskæftiget med høsten, men "de måtte tage afsted inden slutningen af september", inden deres normale rejse til kamelernes græsningsarealer i den Syriske ørken. "De vil naturligvis ikke, og kan ikke gøre meget med mindre jeg gør noget, og det har ikke meget formål at de ødelægger tyrkernes forbindelseslinjer med mindre jeg straks drager nytte af en sådan ødelæggelse ... Hvis jeg bringer dem i kamp og ikke selv gør fremskridt, vil det udsætte dem for gengældelse - hvilket for nogle stammer, såsom druserne syd for Damaskus, kan betyde udryddelse."[76]

Det arabiske oprør spreder sig fint, og de tyrkiske forbindelseslinjer vil blive svære at bevogte mod deres angreb. Det vedlagte foto af sheriffen af Mekka og hans proklamation er en af de måder vi har til at påvirke araberne til at desertere fra tyrkerne. Vi nedkaster disse papirer og pakker med cigaretter over de tyrkiske linjer fra fly. Proklamationen er en appel fra sheriffen til araberne om at forlade tyrkerne og slutte sig til krigen mod dem for frihed og arabisk uafhængighed. Der kan komme mange til, som følge af vor propaganda.

— Brev fra Allenby til sin kone, 3. oktober 1917[77]

Forsyninger

Allenbys strategiske planer for erobring af Beersheba linjen og den senere erobring af Jerusalem, forudsatte hærchefens udelte beslutsomhed og effektive forsyningslinjer til at støtte hans styrkers mobilitet. Offensiven afhang fuldt ud af effektive kommunikationslinjer.[78] For at to divisioner kunne krydse det tørre land og angribe Beersheba, var det nødvendigt at gennemføre omfattende forberedelser for at sikre forsyningen af vand, levnedsmidler og ammunition. Manglen på vand dikterede i sig selv, at angrebet skulle føres helt igennem ellers ville de beredne divisioner blive tvunget til at trække sig tilbage for at vande hestene.[79]

En række rekognosceringer og arbejder af feltingeniører i den tilsyneladende tørre ørken, baseret på efterretninger, betød at der var tilstrækkeligt vand vest for Beersheba til hestene og til de heste som passerede syd om Beersheba i en bred cirkel.[80][Note 8] Arkivalier fra Palestine Exploration Society afslørede, at Khalasa havde været der hvor den græske by Eleusa havde ligget, 20 km sydvest for Beersheba og at Asluj havde været en stor by 25 km syd for Beersheba. Sandsynligheden for at finde vand på disse to steder blev undersøgt af lederen af ingeniørtropperne i det beredne ørkenkorps og blev bekræftet under diskussioner med indbyggere i området. Der blev lagt planer om at udvikle disse vandressourcer.[81] En 48 timers rekognoscering fra Tel el Fara blev gennemført mellem 23. og 25. september for at undersøge vejene og vandet i Esani og Khalasa områderne.[82]

I løbet af natten mellem den 20. og 21. oktober blev enheder fra 20. korps sendt frem for at etablere forsyningslagre og oplagre vand ved Esani mens det beredne ørkenkorps ingeniører udviklede vandressourcer ved Khalasa og Asluj som de tidligere havde fundet frem til. Den normalsporede jernbane til Imara blev færdiggjort og stationen åbnet den 28. oktober. Jernbanen blev forlænget til et punkt 1,2 km nordnordøst for Karm og en station åbnet der den 3. november. Den lette jernbane fra østbredden af wadi Ghazzeh ved Gamli via Karm til Khasif blev færdig den 30. oktober. Mellem den 22. oktober og 1. november blev vandressourcer ved Mendur til Sheik Ajilin udviklet af 21. korps, ved Esani, Imara, Karm og Khasif af 20. korps og ved Abu Ghalyun, Malaga, Khalassa og Asluj af det beredne ørkenkorps. Cisterner i Khasif og Imsiri området blev fyldt med 227 m³ vand til 53. og 74. division, der skulle suppleres af kamelkonvojer.[83][84]

Efter at 2. lette beredne brigade rykkede til Bir el Esani og imperiekamelbrigaden til Abu Ghalyun fortsatte arbejdet nat og dag med at udvikle vandressourcerne. Disse to brigader fik støtte af felteskadronerne fra de beredne Anzac og australske divisioner. Allenby inspicerede personligt vandingsstederne ved Shellal og så til mens ingeniører rensede brøndene ved Khalassa og Asluj. Hans overraskende besøg og store interesse gav de som udførte det vanskelige og beskidte arbejde en fornemmelse af hvilken betydning Allenby tillagde deres arbejde.[85][86]

Om betydningen af vandet skrev historikeren Matthew Hughes: "Vand var den afgørende faktor for succes eller ej for Allenbys plan ved det tredje slag om Gaza."[87][Note 9] Allenby anerkendte problemet den 21. august, hvor han skrev: "brøndene vil formentlig blive sprængt". Men troede, at der ville være "noget vand" i Wadi es Saba og Wadi el Imaleh; men han var usikker på mængden og medgav at det var "...det tørreste tid på året."[88] Heldigvis for den britiske plan havde tordenbyger den 25. oktober efterladt vandhuller i et stort område.[89] Mens der blev gjort alt muligt for at sikre tilstrækkelige og stabile forsyninger, indeholdt Allenbys administrative instrukser følgende advarsel: "Disse beregninger er baseret på fulde mobile rationer. Det han være nødvendigt at fordoble alle distancer og sætte styrken på halve rationer."[90] Trods det bemærker Hughes, at "uden vandet i Beersheba var kavaleriet afhængig af jernbanens endestation ved Karm eller endda Rafah."[91]

20. og 21. korps transport

Der var ikke tilstrækkelig transport til at holde både 20. og 21. korps i felten samtidig. Som følge heraf blev de fleste lastbiler, traktorer (undtagen ammunitionstraktorer) og kameler fra 21. korps (der holdt Gaza sektoren) trukket tilbage og overført til at styrke forsyningen af 20. korps i Beersheba sektoren. Flytningen af 21. korps transport til Shellal og Karm, sammen med forlængelsen af jernbanen til Karm, blev udskudt til sidste øjeblik, for at undgå at trække opmærksomhed til denne del af frontlinjen.[92][93][94] I mellemtiden blev der etableret lagre med rationer, ammunition og ingeniørudstyr i 21. korps område på skjulte steder.[95]

31 October to 7 November

Capture of the Gaza-Beersheba line

Hovedartikel: Battle of Beersheba (1917).

Force Order No. 54 by Allenby states on 22 October that it was his intention to "take the offensive" at Beersheba and Gaza, then make an "enveloping attack" towards Hareira and Sheria.[96] "Allenby turned the Turks out of their defensive positions,"[97] the Gaza-Beersheba line was completely overrun, and 12,000 Ottoman soldiers were captured or surrendered. The subsequent advance would take the EEF to Jerusalem on 9 December.[98][99]

Allenby describes the capture of Beersheba in his report written on in the evening after the battle:

We completed our movements for attack on Beersheba in accordance with plan by dawn today. Advanced works southwest of Beersheba were captured by XXth Corps by 0840. This Corps reached all its objectives by 1305 and held whole of central sector of defences between south and west of Beersheba. Meanwhile Desert Mounted which moved round to east and north of town, captured Tel el Saba by 1600 and cleared Hebron road as far as Bir es Sakaty. Desert Mounted Corps, meeting considerable oppoisition [sic], was within three–quarters of a mile of town on north–east at 1630. XXth Corps was attacking works on left of its original objectives still held by Turks. We had now isolated enemy in works between XXth Corps objectives and Desert Mounted Corps. Neither prisoners nor booty yet collected but up to 1600 some 250 prisoners had been counted and some machine guns taken. Bombardment of Gaza defences has been continued by XXIst Corps. Large explosions were caused at Deir Sineid and also at Sheikh Hasan by naval gun fire. [Later] Beersheba occupied. Some field guns besides further prisoners included in captures.

— Allenby telegram to Robertson dispatched 22:30 on 31 October 1917.[100]

Although the Ottoman defenders suffered many casualties at Beersheba, "stubborn fighting continued" against strong Ottoman rearguards, which delayed an EEF breakthrough for seven days.[101] The continuation of the offensive so far from base depended on efficiently supplying the attacking force. The Australian Mounted Division was supplied by their divisional train which brought supplies to them at Beersheba on 2 November.[Note 10] On 31 October the Australian Mounted Divisional Train moved back from Esani to Gamli, where they loaded supplies before heading out for Reshid Beck where they arrived at 17:00 on 1 November. Departing at 09:30 on 2 November, they moved along the long dusty wadi Salia towards Beersheba via Hill 1070. The divisional train halted for a meal and rest when the animals were fed, before continuing on to arrive at Beersheba and bivouac at 20:00. At 08:00 on 3 November, they began offloading the supplies.[102]

Medical situation

The ambulance stretcher bearers following closely behind the regiments collected the wounded where they fell. The first divisional collecting station was formed by mobile sections at Khasm Zanna, some 3 miles (4,8 km) east of Beersheba at 12:30. When this was full, at 19:00 second was formed nearer Beersheba. The 165 wounded from the Anzac and Australian Mounted Divisions were retained overnight. These wounded were transferred to the Ottoman hospital in Beersheba which was taken over after the operating unit and the Australian Mounted Division receiving station arrived at 07:00 on 1 November. The Anzac Mounted Division receiving station and convoy cars in reserve, arrived at 11:00 when evacuation was to Imara by Motor Ambulance Convoy and light (Ford) motor ambulance waggons began. On 2 November the XX Corps took over the Ottoman hospital when the Australian Mounted Division receiving station, transferred to the town hall where wounded from the fighting in the hills north of the city started to arrive.[103]

Southern Judean Hills towards Hebron

Hovedartikel: Battle of Tel el Khuweilfe.

For a week, the Ottoman defenders continued to hold most of the old Gaza to Beersheba line after the capture of Beersheba, including Sheria, and Gaza along with Tank and Atawineh redoubts.[104] "It was not water so much as strong defence and cool action under fire by the enemy which held its line for seven days after the fall of Beersheba which allowed its army to retire in an orderly fashion."[105] However recent histories have remained focused on the issue of water. "Water was the determining factor in the success or otherwise of Allenby's plan at the third battle of Gaza."[106] Indeed, the return of the Australian Mounted Division to water at Karm has been describes as negating "the whole purpose of the flanking operation ... the attempt to cut off the enemy forces had failed" due to delays caused by water difficulties.[107]

After the loss of Beersheba, the Ottoman defenders withdrew north north west towards Tel esh Sheria and northwards towards Tel el Khuweilfe.[108][109] Those who retired northward were to defend the Seventh Army headquarters at Hebron and the road north to Jerusalem less than 50 miles (80 km) away. Here a considerable Ottoman force, including all available reserve units, were deployed in the Tel el Kuweilfeh area to face strong attacks by the Anzac Mounted Division. These attacks which began the day after Beersheba was captured, were strongly resisted during the Battle of Tel el Khuweilfe by the Ottoman defenders who feared a major cavalry attack.[110][111]

Mediterranean coast

Hovedartikel: Third Battle of Gaza.

During the Third Battle of Gaza, several attacks were made by the XXI Corps by the 52nd (Lowland), the 54th (East Anglian) and the 75th Divisions.[112] The main purpose of these operations was to keep the Ottoman garrison of 8,000 riflemen supported by 116 guns in place. The XXI Corps launched an attack at 23:00 during the night of 1/2 November towards Umbrella Hill. The second attack a few hours later at 03:00 was launched towards the El Arish Redoubt.[113][114][115] These attacks, which concentrated on a 2 miles (3,2 km) long section of the defences between Umbrella Hill and the coast, aimed to capture three groups of trench complexes or redoubts, called el Arish, Rafa, and Cricket by the EEF. These fortifications were strongly connected by a "series of trench lines several layers thick, and backed by other trenches and strongpoints."[116] During these attacks, which were never intended to capture Gaza, just the first line of Ottoman trenches, the XXI Corps utilised new infantry tactics, and were supported by tanks and a large quantity of artillery, organised according to a western front-style of deployment.[117]

In the centre

Hovedartikel: Battle of Hareira and Sheria.
Ottoman Artillery at Hareira

The main flank attack on the Ottoman front line stretching from Gaza, was made on 6 November by the EEF in the centre at Hareira and Sheria, and a gap was created for the Desert Mounted Corps to advance to capture Huj on their way to the Mediterranean coast.[118][119]

However, there were less than 8,000 horsemen available out of the 17,000 in Desert Mounted Corps.[120] Only three light horse and one mounted brigades were immediately available on 7 November to participate in the breakthrough. They were the 1st and the 2nd Light Horse Brigades (Anzac Mounted Division), the 4th Light Horse and the 5th Mounted Brigades while the 3rd Light Horse Brigade (Australian Mounted Division), waited to be relieved from outpost work connecting the XX and the XXI Corps.[121] Desert Mounted Corps’ strength had been cut by one third by the decision to leave the Yeomanry Mounted Division, the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade, and the 11th and the 12th Light Armoured Car Batteries in the Judean Hills supporting the 53rd (Welsh) Division attacks at Tel el Khuweilfe. The Anzac Mounted Division was also less two squadrons and machine guns, and most of the Division's Field Squadron Australian Engineers which were still working to improve the amount of water flowing from the Beersheba wells.[122]

Hovedartikel: Charge at Sheria.
Tel es Sheria bridge

By 09:00 the Australian Mounted Division (less one brigade) was to connect at Kh. Buteihah with the Anzac Mounted Division which was steadily pushing back Ottoman posts to gain space for manoeuvre.[123] However, the Australian Mounted Division was not in a position to advance until after dark, because of delays in the capture of Tel esh Sheria.[124] After participating in the unsuccessful charge, the horses of the 11th Light Horse Regiment were watered at 06:00 at the Sheria Water Tower on 8 November, where the regiment was issued with rations and forage from their B1 echelon's special emergency rations. At 07:30 the 4th Light Horse Brigade informed the regiment that the brigade was moving at 09:00 in a northerly direction up the Wadi Sudeh.[125] The 4th Light Horse Brigade concentrated ,5 miles (0,80 km)* south of Tel el Sheria and the 12th Light Horse Regiment moved off with the brigade northwards. Ottoman columns were reported retreating northwards from Atawineh towards Huj and Beit Hanun at midnight 7/8 November.[126]

Meanwhile the opposing forces fighting for the Khuweilfeh Ridge, continued their long drawn-out struggle on 7 November without much change. Towards the evening the Ottoman forces began to withdraw, to conform with a general retirement along the length of the whole Ottoman defensive line, including Gaza and Sheria.[127] At Gaza, a series of EEF infantry attacks during the night of 6 November were not strongly resisted and when a general advance occurred during the morning of 7 November the town was found to have been abandoned.[128] The town which had a population of 40,000 people before the war, was completely deserted.[129][130] By that evening, although not many prisoners had been captured "the enemy had been ejected from strong positions" which had been held successfully against the EEF for eight months.[131]

Ottoman withdrawal

The Ottoman XXII Corps was not defeated, but had skilfully conducted a tactical retreat from Gaza, demonstrating both operational and tactical mobility.[132] Nor did the Yildirim Army Group attempt a strong counterattack. The Seventh Army commanded by Mustafa Kemal and the Eighth Army commanded by Kress von Kressenstein were instead ordered to "conduct a fighting withdrawal," with the Ottoman 3rd Cavalry Division screening the left flank of the Seventh Army. While the headquarters of Yildirim Army Group retired back to Jerusalem the headquarters of the Seventh Army retired back from Hebron to Bethlehem. A new defensive line 10 miles (16 km) north of Gaza had begun to be established, before disengaging their forces to withdraw during the night. Numerous rearguards covered the disengagement when many Ottoman troops died or were captured defending these rearguards. Under pressure from the main EEF advance in the centre and along the coast towards the Eighth Army, Kress von Kressenstein had great difficulty maintaining control and cohesion. By 9 November the Eighth Army had retreated 20 miles (32 km) while the Seventh Army had lost hardly any ground.[115]

Rearguards

Situation as known to General Headquarters of the EEF at 18:00 7 November 1917

Although they had been retiring during the two previous nights, they strongly resisted, fighting the EEF mounted divisions on the intervening day. Rearguards formed by groups ranging in size from a company to several regiments, occupied every tell or other commanding ground to establish a strong rearguard position, from which they fought "tenaciously."[133] Many Ottoman troops died or were captured defending their rearguards, but the sacrifice of the Ottoman rearguards delayed the EEF advance and saved the Eighth Army from encirclement and destruction.[98][134]

After they evacuated Gaza, the Ottoman 53rd Division was ordered to advance across the front, passed Huj to stop Desert Mounted Corps' breakout. They attacked leading squadrons of the 2nd Light Horse Brigade which were driven in, before attacking the 7th Mounted Brigade on their left, which stopped the advance. However when threatened by the 1st Light Horse Brigade on the right, the 53rd Division withdrew to the Wadi Hesi, but the delay to the mounted advance allowed the 16th and 26th Divisions to escape capture.[135]

By the evening the Anzac Mounted Division reached Tel Abu Dilakh, the Australian Mounted Division on their left with the 60th (London) Division on their left.[136] The breakthrough was only partial as strong well organised counterattacks blocked the mounted divisions at Tel Abu Dilakh, north of Tel esh Sheria and on the Wadi el Hesi line enabling the rearguards from the Atawineh, Tank and Beer defences to withdrawal. This disciplined withdrawal succeeded in preventing a rout, but the Ottoman defences were now only rudimentary and could not stop Desert Mounted Corps for long.[137]

Two factors influenced the speed of the EEF advance, the frequent counterattacks and water.[138] It was known that water was available at Bir Jamameh, at Tel el Jejile and Huj.[139] However only part of the Desert Mounted Corps was armed for mounted attack. "But the fact that only two of the six brigades available were armed with the sword undoubtedly affected their tactics and pace in dealing with the opposition of the Turkish rearguards."[140][Note 11]

During 7 November, the Australian Mounted Division was delayed by strong Ottoman rearguards during the Battle of Hareira and Sheria near Sheria, while only two brigades of the Anzac Mounted Division were available to advance and threaten the Ottoman withdrawal, which continued unaffected. Chauvel requested the return of the Yeomanry Mounted Division to the Desert Mounted Corps.[141]

Pursuit 7 to 16 November

However, recent historians have overlooked the successful allied campaign of manoeuvre which resulted in the capture of Jerusalem,[142] claiming the Battle of Megiddo in September 1918, was the "only successful allied campaign of manoeuvre in the entire Great War."[97] The pursuit was hampered by problems with watering horses, lack of supplies, both of which were exacerbated by a khamsin, the hot southerly wind that stirred up clouds of dust and sand.[143] One hundred motor lorries carrying full 1.800 litres (480 US gal) water tanks shuttled between Beersheba and Karm 26 kilometer (16 mi) away.[144] Insufficient water and the frequent counter-attacks, which were most often directed against the right of the advancing mounted corps from the foothills of the Judean Hills, were the two major factors which slowed the pursuit.[145]

All bustle and hustle with the Military. Natives rounded up with their donkeys and camels ... carrying stone jars of water in slings. Military Police on horseback at work on the populace. Red Cross cars parked after their activity ... Armoured cars cleaning their guns. Transport ... and mounds fodder ... aeroplanes flying low over the place. Wrecked pumping station ... Cavalry details passing ...

— Private Doug H. Calcutt, 2/16th London Regiment, 179th Brigade, 60th (London) Division Diary 3 November 1917[146]

7 November

The Anzac Mounted Division (less the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade still attached to Barrow's detachment with the 53rd (Welsh) Division near Khuweilfe) received orders to advance to Ameidat on 7 November.[139][147] They pushed through a gap in the Ottoman defensive line at Kh. Umm el Bakr. This gap had been created when the defenders closed up towards Tel esh Sheria and Tel el Khuweilfe. They rode to Umm el Ameidat, 5 miles (8,0 km) north west of Tel esh Sheria station on the Beersheba to Junction Station railway without being opposed for the first couple of miles. As the lead brigade, the 1st Light Horse Brigade moved in open formation over the plain they were shelled by Ottoman artillery from the west and north-west. As the 1st Light Horse Brigade approached the station at 11:00, the leading regiment were fired on. Instead of dismounting to the attack, they charged into the place which was captured after a "sharp fight," along with large supply and ammunition depots.[148][149] At Ameidat they captured 396 prisoners and 27 trucks loaded with ammunition, ordnance stores including arms and saddlery.[150] From their position 10 miles (16 km) behind the old Ottoman front line the Anzac Mounted Division was shelled from the Judean Hills on their right and the Ottoman heavy guns firing from Sheria and Atawineh redoubts on the left. These Ottoman guns also fired on the XX and XXI Corps covering the country in shrapnel, smoke and dust.[151]

At noon patrols from the Anzac Mounted Division rode out from Ameidat north towards Tel en Nejil 4 miles (6,4 km) away on the railway, and north-west towards Kh. Jemmame on the Wadi Jammame also 4 miles (6,4 km) away. Half an hour later they were informed that Gaza had fallen and the division was urged to attempt to cut off the retreat of the Gaza garrison by advancing to Kh. Jemmame although the centre of the line around Hareira and Atawineh was still held by Ottoman rearguards.[150][152] Both patrols were stopped by Ottoman rearguards, a very strong one was located on the Tel Abu Dilakh half way to Kh. Jemmame. Although the 2nd Light Horse Brigade rode forward to support the 1st Light Horse Brigade's attack on the Tel at 15:00, and the combined force of the two brigades pushed the defenders back off the hill, the rearguard took up another strong position a short distance to the north.[150][152] Although there was no water available, the Anzac Mounted Division bivouaced near Ameidat holding a battle outpost line stretching from Abu Dilakh to 2 miles (3,2 km) east of the railway.[148][152] During the night scouts from the 3rd Light Horse Brigade (after being relieved from the outpost line connecting the XX with the XXI Corps) found touch with the Anzac Mounted Division near Abu Dilakh,[153] and the 7th Mounted Brigade was sent to reinforce the Anzac Mounted Division, as the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade was still in the Tel el Khuweilfe area with the 53rd (Welsh) Division.[152][Note 12]

7–8 November

Beit Hanun and Wadi el Hesi

Hovedartikel: Capture of the Wadi el Hesi.

It has been claimed the XXI Corps had no cavalry to "pursue" the retreating Ottoman army "up the coastal plain."[106] However, the pursuit which eventually ended some 50 miles (80 km) north, began during the morning of 7 November when the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade advanced out of Gaza to reach Beit Hanun where they encountered part of the Gaza garrison defending a strong rearguard position on a ridge 1,5 miles (2,4 km)* south-east of Beit Hanun. While they succeeded in occupying a ridge west of Beit Hanun the village remained in Ottoman hands, until retiring behind the Wadi Hesi, 7 miles (11 km) north north east of Gaza in the sand dunes and in the cultivated area. Yildirim Army Group had marched through the night, to gain distance and time to establish a light entrench line defending water sources. Here, they were attacked by the 157th Brigade (52nd Division) which had marched north from Gaza. However, the Ottoman forces succeeded in holding the Wadi all day, resisting the EEF advance strongly, until late on 8 November.[154][155][156]

The casualties suffered by the XX Corps between 31 October and 7 November were, 932 killed, 4,444 wounded and 108 missing. During this period they captured 2,177 prisoners, 45 guns, seven trench mortars and 50 machine guns.[157]

8 November

By the morning of 8 November, Ali Fuad's force was found north of Tel el Sheria, operating independently of the Seventh and Eighth Armies.[158] Patrols by the Composite Regiment (Royal Glasgow Yeomanry, Duke of Lancaster Yeomanry 1/1st Hertfordshire Yeomanry squadrons) at Sheikh Abbas, found the redoubts along the Gaza to Beersheba road lightly held. Large sections of the Ottoman 26th and 54th Divisions had quietly retreated during the night of 7/8 November, while the EEF had been held up by the 53rd Division's machine gun screen. The Ottoman force withdrew through the narrowing gap between the EEF's mounted troops advancing on the coast and those inland.[159][160] The rearguard trenches still held on the Gaza to Beersheba road, resulted in the XX Corps and XXI Corps transport making long detours, to avoid fire. The 232nd Brigade with the South African Brigade Field Artillery, 495th Field Company Royal Engineers and two sections of a field ambulance managed to advance to Deir Sneid during the day.[161]

Hodgson ordered the 3rd Light Horse and the 5th Mounted Brigades of the Australian Mounted Division to advance, with the 3rd Light Horse Brigade's right on Kh. el Kofkha, and the 5th Mounted Brigade's left on Huj. Chauvel, aware of the advance by troops of the XXI Corps along the coast ordered Hodgson at 13:00 to send a regiment of the 4th Light Horse Brigade (which had returned to his command earlier in the day) to make touch them. The 12th Light Horse Regiment rode 12 miles (19 km) in one and a half hours, across country to join up with the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade near Beit Hanun.[162] And, late in the afternoon the Australian Mounted Division reached Huj, where the Yeomanry charge captured 30 prisoners, 11 field guns and four machine guns.[163]

Huj

Hovedartikel: Charge at Huj.
Ottoman Army howitzer captured near Huj now on display outside Victoria Barracks, Melbourne.

The advance towards Huj by the Australian Mounted Division, with the 60th (London) Division, resumed on 8 November, when another strong rearguard of artillery and machine-guns was encountered.[164][165] While suffering "considerable shell fire," the 5th Mounted Brigade advanced on the left of the 60th (London) Division. During a personal reconnaissance by Major General Shea commanding the 60th (London) Division, he saw a "straggling column of enemy moving from west to east some tre miles (4,8 km) ahead and a flank guard with artillery hastily taking up a position to the right front." He commanded the 5th Mounted Brigade to charge the Ottoman flank guard.[166] A small contingent made a cavalry charge at Huj with sabres. These 200 men from the 1/1st Warwickshire Yeomanry and the 1/1st Worcestershire Yeomanry suffered heavy casualties but managed to reach the guns and cut down the gunners.[164] In doing so they destroyed the last of the Ottoman strength south of Huj.[143] However, no large groups of enemy soldiers were cut off.[143] While the Australian Mounted Division captured Huj, which had been the site of the headquarters of Kress von Kressenstein's Eighth Army, the Anzac Mounted Division captured Wadi Jemmame and the water supply.[167]

The 60th (London) Division reached the end of their lines of communication when they bivouaced about 1,5 miles (2,4 km)* east of Huj. The division had marched 23,5 miles (37,8 km)* between 05:30 on 6 November and 16:30 on 8 November, capturing the Kauwukah and Rushdi systems, and the bridgehead at Sheria; stopping a determined counterattack and pushing Ottoman rearguards from three defensive positions. They captured two 5.9 howitzers, 10 field guns, 21 machine guns, two Lewis guns and anti aircraft guns. The 179th Brigade suffered 28 killed, 274 wounded and two missing, the 180th Brigade suffered 50 killed, 249 wounded and six missing, and the 181st Brigade suffered 35 killed, 207 and 10 missing. The divisional artillery suffered 11 killed and 44 wounded.[168]

XX and XXI Corps transport problems

Transport wagons. Gaza in the background

Only one infantry division could be supplied and maintained at a distance of 20–25 miles (32–40 km) from railhead, with the camels and wheeled transport allotted to the EEF infantry corps.[169] During the attack on Beersheba the transport of the XXI Corps had been assigned to supply the XX Corps, which marched back to near railhead at Karm after the victory. Here minimal transport was needed so the transport was sent back to the XXI Corps. Many thousands of camels in long lines slowly converged on their allotted areas, before being loaded up for the advance. Motor lorries caked with dust, also drove westwards across the sand and powdered earth. The sleepless drivers' vehicles were then load up before driving off to supply their infantry units.[170]

The 60th (London) Division which could not be supplied north of Huj, remained in that area while the transport of the two infantry corps were being reorganised.[171]

Desert Mounted Corps

So it was only units of the XXI Corps on the coast advancing to attack the Ottoman rearguard defending the Wadi Hesi line, and six mounted brigades of Desert Mounted Corps inland which were available to pursue the Ottoman army. Urgently needing reinforcements, Chauvel ordered the Yeomanry Mounted Division back to Desert Mounted Corps from Barrow's Detachment in the Tel el Khuweilfe area on 8 November.[171] The Dorset Yeomanry (6th Mounted Brigade, Yeomanry Mounted Division) covered 60 miles (97 km) in 54 hours.[172][173] Many of the frequent counterattacks directed towards Desert Mounted Corps, were against the right from the foothills of the Judean Hills held by the Seventh Ottoman Army.[152]

A major Ottoman rearguard south-west of Nejile determined to keep the EEF pursuit away from the water for 24 hours.[Note 13] The pressure of the Anzac Mounted Division with the 7th Mounted Brigade attached, (while the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade was detached from its division) eventually forced the rearguard to give way. However, the 1/1st Sherwood Rangers and the 1/1st South Notts Hussars (7th Mounted Brigade) were vigorously counterattacked at Mudweiweh on the Anzac Mounted Division's right which they "gallantly held off."[152][174]

The Anzac Mounted Division (less the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade) had ridden out at dawn towards Bureir, about 12 miles (19 km) north–east of Gaza, with the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades in line covering a front of about 6 miles (9,7 km) centred about Abu Dilakh with the 7th Mounted Brigade in reserve on the right of the 2nd Light Horse Brigade.[154][175] The 1st Light Horse Regiment (1st Light Horse Brigade) advanced at 05:45 towards Tell en Nejile, while the 3rd Light Horse Regiment (1st Light Horse Brigade) remained at Ameidat to guard the right flank. The 5th and 7th Light Horse Regiments (2nd Light Horse Brigade), on the left advanced towards Kh. Jemmame.[165] The division rode across open, rolling, treeless, firm country dotted with prominent hills or 'tels' designed for cavalry with the Australian Mounted on their left.[154][175] In the process, the 2nd Light Horse Brigade captured two guns, which had held them up the evening before.[152]

Horses queue for water at Jemmameh 8 November 1917. Ambulance horses and the end of the queue at 08:30 were watered at 17:30

From 09:00 long columns of retreating Yildirim Army Group units, with guns and transport, were seen moving northwards through Kh. el Kofkha towards Jemmame. After watering their horses at the Wadi Sheria, the 7th Mounted Brigade, arrived at divisional headquarters at 09:00 and was immediately ordered to reinforce the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades in the centre.[165] At 11:00 the 2nd Light Horse Brigade was counter–attacked strongly on the right of the mounted infantry line, near Tel el Nejile, and was held up while the 7th Mounted Brigade, in the centre, continued to advance towards Bir el Jemameh. By about 13:00 they had nearly reached their objective, when they were heavily attacked by the Ottoman defenders covering the water supply, forcing the brigade back, and endangering its left flank. The 1st Light Horse Brigade came up on the western side of the 7th Mounted Brigade, and drove the Ottoman attackers back, the leading troops of 1st Light Horse Brigade, the 3rd Light Horse Regiment fought their way into Bir el Jemameh/Kh Jemmame shortly after 15:00. Here they captured the wells, cisterns and steam pumping plant intact, including the engineer in charge. While a regiment of the 1st Light Horse Brigade secured the high ground to the north overlooking Bir el Jemameh protecting the area, the remainder of the brigade and the 7th Mounted Brigade, watered all their horses.[175][176] Meanwhile, the 2nd Light Horse Brigade occupied Tel el Nejil station after dark, when the Ottoman 53rd Division's defenders had retired. Although some water was found here in the Wadi Hesi, it was not possible to water the horses of the outpost troops which established a night outpost line, protecting Nejil.[175][177]

The Anzac Mounted Division had captured the country from Nejile to the north bank of the wadi Jemmameh, along with 300 prisoners and two guns.[178] While the Australian Mounted Division advanced round the north side of Huj, their 4th Light Horse Brigade in touch with the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade (XXI Corps) at Beit Hanun. During the day, their 3rd Light Horse Brigade captured prisoners and two Austrian 5.9 howitzers.[178]

By the evening of 8 November, all the Ottoman positions which had made up the Gaza–Beersheba line had been captured and the enemy was in full retreat.[163] During 8 November the EEF advanced 8 miles (13 km) to occupy a position due east of Huj, which had been the army headquarters and military railway terminus of the coast line. EEF artillery was then able to get into position just before dark, to fire during the night on the main road leading north from Huj. By the morning of 9 November, the road was littered with guns, limbers, ammunition wagons and transport of all descriptions, jumbled up into heaps with their teams shot.[179]

The battle is in full swing ... My army is all over the place, now; on a front of 35 miles. I am at the centre of telegraph and telephone lines, in my old headquarters. I have no idea, yet what our captures are; but they will be something big, when all is collected. I hear that some parts of the battlefield are carpeted with dead Turks. My flying men are having the time of their lives; bombing and machine gunning the retreating columns. All my staff wear happy expressions of countenance. I fancy that Kress von Kressenstein is nearing the Jaffa–Jerusalem line, himself. I have many congratulatory telegrams – from the Sultan, the High Commissioner; etc, etc. and from General Maude – who has, himself, had another success; at Tekrit ... I hear of 43 guns captured, so far; but I don't know, for certain. We ought to get a lot eventually.

— Allenby letter to Lady Allenby 8 November 1917[180]

Historians have characterised the pursuit as a failed attempt to capture the withdrawing Ottoman forces.[181][182] That the XXI Corps advance from Gaza and the Desert Mounted Corps advance from Tel esh Sheria were to form "two jaws" to cut off and capture the retreating Ottoman armies.[183] During this period, some horses only had one good drink in four days which had a serious effect on their condition. So only six of the 11 brigades of Desert Mounted Corps were available for the pursuit and having been short of water since leaving Khalasa/Asluj/Easni on 30/31 October their horses were far from fit. The unfit brigades were formed into a reserve corps and returned to areas where feed and water were available. When revived, they became available as reinforcements as the water situation north of Hareira and Sharia was sparsely populated with few very deep, low yielding water wells. Yildirim Army Group's tactics took the geographic conditions into account. They knew that if the EEF was delayed more than 48 hours without water it the pursuit would have to stop so strong rearguards were established to allow their infantry to withdraw well ahead of the slower British infantry. The EEF forces persevered in spite of the long marches on very limited forage and water, to attack the Ottoman forces relentlessly.[184][185]

Manoeuvre warfare armaments

The vast transformation of warfare by the machine gun was demonstrated during the 8 November, as it was not the Ottoman artillery which interfered with the Anzac Mounted Division's advance, but machine guns which prevented them from breaking through to attack and capture the columns.[165] The 8 November also demonstrated the value of swords in mounted attack, directly during the attack at Huj and indirectly when the swordless Australian light horse were "compelled to make dismounted attacks" instead of attacking large retreating Ottoman columns. Before Allenby arrived, the British command had "contemplated withdrawing the swords from the Yeomanry regiments to lighten the burdens of their horses, on the ground that the arme blanche was little likely ever to be used."[186]

Air attacks and support

No. 304 Bavarian Flying Squadron

Yildirim Army Group suffered a serious loss of aircraft, stores and aerodromes during the retreat. In order to protect their air force, it was decided on 4 November during a conference with Felmy commander of the German Air Force, that one of the new German squadrons based at Irak el Menshiye aerodrome, should move north to a new aerodrome near Junction Station. This move was delayed for three days “owing to urgent need of pilots” but by 7 November, when the move was finally ordered, transport was not available. A staff officer of the Ottoman Eighth Army arrived at 18:00 in a car to order an immediate retreat. No. 304 Squadron requested railway wagons to transport the flying material, but the only ones available were full of corn. The military commissioner argued that the Army Group had ordered provisions be sent back as a priority but the Flying Squadron officer threatened to machine gun the railway station if the wagons were not handed over. The corn was emptied, and the flying squadrons loaded holding up the departure of the train.[187]

EEF aerial support

Three RE8 fighter aircraft of No 1 Squadron AFC prepare to take off on a bombing raid during an the Southern Palestine offensive in November 1917

Air raids by the EEF were carried out during the night of 1/2 November when twelve bombs were dropped on Gaza. On 3 and 4 November air raids were made over the hills north of Beersheba. By 6 November it was reported that Ottoman hospitals were seen being moved back indicating the beginnings of a general retreat towards Mejdel which was also bombed by aircraft.[188] Bombs were also dropped on the main positions behind the Kauwukah defences, near Um Ameidat, on Gaza and on shelters west of Sheria, and three aerial combats were fought against three hostile aircraft.[189] During this time German aircraft had rarely been seen, but that afternoon two R.E.8s and two B.E.12.a aircraft from No. 1 Squadron on photography patrol were attacked by four Albatros aircraft and badly damaged.[190] While a German aircraft was shot down in flames near the Wadi Hesi.[191]

'Iraq el Menshiye aerodrome and railway station after EEF air raid on 8 November 1917

Up until the Ottoman withdrawal became apparent on 7 November, the Royal Flying Corps had mainly been involved in strategical reconnaissance by the 40th (Army) Wing, while the 5th (Corps) Wing had been undertaking artillery registration and tactical photography. Now most aircraft began bomb and machine gun attacks on the retiring columns.[192] During the pursuit No. 1 Australian Flying Squadron, carried out the photographic work, taking detailed photos of the country and the position of the enemy immediately ahead, and took part in air raids.[191] For a full week, they attacked the Ottoman columns with machine guns and bombs, as well as Ottoman infrastructure including aerodromes, transport and artillery, hitting many of their targets.[193]

Concentrations of Ottoman forces were reported on 7 November at el Mejdel and Beit Duras, to the north of the Wadi Hesi.[194] While the morning reconnaissance on 8 November reported the enemy retreating from everywhere, but the Ottoman aerial squadrons appeared to have been delayed. On the aerodromes at Julis (just beyond Mejdel), at Arak el Menshiye, and at Et Tine, aircraft were on the ground and many hangars had not yet been dismantled. A bombing raid by 30 aircraft, including nine Australian aircraft, attack the largest aerodromes at Arak el Menshiye in the morning. This raid, together with a repeat in the afternoon, caused considerable damage as 200 bombs were dropped including 48 hits, ten of which hit aircraft on the ground. Several hangars were set on fire or damaged, while aircraft on the ground were also damaged. Aircraft which escaped from Arak el Menshiye and Julis were bombed twice on 9 November. And at Et Tine on 9 November at least nine aircraft were destroyed. When Desert Mounted Corps reached Arak el Menshiye and Et Tine, on 10 and 11 November they found eight destroyed aircraft and the aerodromes along with the Arak el Menshiye railway station in ruins.[190] Other targets included railway stations and junctions, troops on the march, supply dumps, transport were all continually bombed and machine gunned.[191][192]

A further five hostile aircraft were destroyed at Ramleh aerodrome and another one at Ludd while the battlefield was covered with debris from aerial and ground bombardments.[193] Hostile aircraft flew in formations of between two and four aircraft in an attempt to challenge the new superiority of the EEF aircraft but on almost every occasion were unsuccessful. EEF aircraft controlled the skies for a time, although a renewal of the air war occurred on about 24 November.[192]

During the day RFC dropped nearly 300 bombs on various objectives. Troops and transport north of Julis and Falujeh were bombed with destructive effect and attacked with machine gun fire. In Julis station direct hits were obtained on rolling stock. 120 bombs were dropped later in day in and around El Tine. Several direct hits on hangars, two of which burst into flames. One direct hit on machine on the aerodrome. Stores near railway and station buildings attacked with effect; troops in neighbourhood scattered by a number of bombs dropped among them. Our pilots then descended and machine-gunned them.

— Allenby to Roberson Evening Report 8 November 1917[195]

9 November

Hovedartikel: Battle of Mughar Ridge#Mounted troop movements on 9 November.

The only infantry unit capable of advancing on 9 November was the 52nd (Lowland) Division's 156th (Scottish Rifles) Brigade, commanded by Brigadier General Archibald Herbert Leggett. The 155th and 157th Brigades of the 52nd (Lowland) Division were regrouping on 9 November, after fierce fighting for Sausage Ridge on 8 November.[196][197]

Most of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force's infantry divisions were at the end of their lines of communication and were not able to follow up the Ottoman withdrawal. XXI Corps's 54th (East Anglian) Division was forced to rest at Gaza and the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade at Beit Hanun. In the rear, Lieutenant General Philip Chetwode's XX Corps had transferred its transport to XXI Corps. XX Corps's 60th (2/2nd London) Division (Major General John Shea) was resting at Huj and its 10th (Irish) (Major General John Longley) and 74th (Yeomanry) (Major General Eric Girdwood) Divisions were at Karm. In the field were the 53rd (Welsh) Division (Major General S. F. Mott), corps cavalry, the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade, deployed in the front line near Tel el Khuweilfe in the foothills of the Judean Hills north of Beersheba.[198][199][200] Allenby ordered the Yeomanry Mounted Division back from Khuweilfe to Chauvel immediately, in the afternoon of the 8 November but they did not arrive on the right flank of Desert Mounted Corps until two days later, on 10 November. The Imperial Camel Corps Brigade was also returned to Chauvel's command on 11 November when the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade was ordered forward 52 miles (84 km) from Beersheba. They arrived 18 1/2 hours later.[201] Meanwhile, Chauvel was forced to send the Australian Mounted Division back to water on 9 November, so only the Anzac Mounted Division (less the New Zealanders) which had watered at Jemmameh was available to continue the pursuit. Had the Australian and New Zealand regiments been armed with the sword they may have had opportunities for decisive shock actions in addition to the yeomanry cavalry charges at Huj, El Mughar and Abu Shushe.[201]

The Ottoman Eighth Army troops were retiring in some order as quickly as possible, protected against serious attack, and fairly well ahead of their pursuers, while the Seventh Army in good condition, had retired about 10 miles (16 km) without interference, and was preparing to launch a counter–attack. While the EEF issued orders for the pursuit to advance on 9 November towards the Nahr Suqreir, more than 25 miles (40 km) north of Gaza, the next possible line of defence.[202]

Isdud

By 9 November the Eighth Army had retreated 20 miles (32 km) while the Seventh Army "had lost hardly any ground."[115] Soon after daylight, Chaytor's Anzac Mounted Division set out to ride across the maritime plain towards the coast, having watered their horses the previous evening.[203][204] By about 08:30 the 1st Light Horse Brigade entered Bureir and around an hour later the 2nd Light Horse Brigade was approaching Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein's Eighth Army headquarters at Hulayqat, where an Ottoman rearguard occupied a strong position. The brigade made a dismounted attack capturing 600 prisoners, large amounts of supplies, materiel and an abandoned German field hospital. At midday El Mejdel, 13 miles (21 km) north-east of Gaza, was occupied by the 1st Light Horse Brigade, when they captured 170 prisoners and found a good well with a steam pump, enabling the brigade to quickly water all horses. After passing the ancient town of Ashkelon the Anzac Mounted Division was notified by the Desert Mounted Corps that the XXI Corps was marching up the coast towards El Mejdel and Julis. As the main Ottoman road and railway leading north from Gaza were both cut Chauvel ordered the division to advance towards Bayt Daras, requiring the division to turn north-east. Subsequently the 1st Light Horse Brigade entered Isdud close to the Mediterranean Sea while, on their right, the 2nd Light Horse Brigade captured the villages of Suafir el Sharkiye and Arak Suweidan, a convoy and its escort (some 350 prisoners). As the brigade was reorganising to secure the prisoners, Ottoman guns further north opened fire, shelling both captors and captives alike. Just before dark the 2nd Light Horse Brigade captured a further 200 prisoners, before the Anzac Mounted Division took up a night battle outpost line, along high ground south of the Wadi Mejma, from near Isdud to Arak Suweidan.[163][205]

Meanwhile Hodgson's Australian Mounted Division, spent most of 9 November searching for water, which was eventually found at Huj.[204] By the evening of 8 November, the 3rd Light Horse Brigade had not watered since 7 November and the 5th Mounted Brigade since the evening of 6 November, and that if these two brigades were not watered the following day, the divisional war diary reported, "results will be most serious." After relieving these two brigades at 07:30 on 9 November, the 4th Light Horse brigade sent out patrols searching for water. The 12th Light Horse Regiment found one small well at Nejed, while another patrol found two wells at Simsim with basic lifting appliances which made watering very slow. They also found touch with the Anzac Mounted Division. By noon on 9 November the division was watering at Jemmameh, which was not expected to be completed until 18:00.[206] After most of the horses had been watered, they advanced 16 miles (26 km) to the Kastina–Isdud line capturing prisoners, guns, and transports on the way. This march made during the night of 9/10 November was the only night march made during the Sinai and Palestine campaign, through Ottoman territory.[198][207]

The Australian Mounted Division's 12th Light Horse Regiment (4th Light Horse Brigade) advanced north from Burieh to Al-Faluja arriving at 24:00 on 9/10 November when engineering stores and five burnt out aircraft were captured.[208][209] The division was followed by the 4th Light Horse Brigade Field Ambulance and the divisional train made up of brigade transport and supply sections carrying rations. The field ambulance set up a dressing station and treated about 40 wounded men before moving through Huj at 16:00. After encountering rugged mountainous ravines and 6 miles (9,7 km) of very rough terrain, at around midnight they set up camp in a wadi bed.[210]

Barrow's Yeomanry Mounted Division, had been fighting in the Tel el Khuweilfe region until Allenby ordered it to rejoin the Desert Mounted Corps, 20 miles (32 km) away on the coast. Meanwhile, infantry in the 10th (Irish) and 74th (Yeomanry) Divisions remained at Karm, while the 60th (London) Division remained at Huj.[198][204][211]

10 November

Hovedartikel: Battle of Mughar Ridge#Infantry capture Isdud and Nahr Sukereir.

Wadi Sukereir

Fil:Falls sketch 9.jpeg
Falls' Sketch Map 9 shows position of the advance at 1800 on 10 November 1917

Ottoman forces were encountered on 10 November near Isdud on the Mediterranean Sea. The leading brigade of the 52nd (Lowland) Division, the 156th (Scottish Rifles) Brigade, advanced 15 miles (24 km) despite encountering stiff Ottoman resistance and was subjected to artillery bombardment from across the Nahr Sukereir. The 156th (Scottish Rifles) Brigade pushing across the Nahr Sukereir at Jisr Esdud, to Hamama. Here they successfully established a bridgehead on the Ottoman right flank. Ample water was found and the bridgehead was enlarged the following day.[198][212] They followed the 1st Light Horse Brigade which had reported "All Clear" at Isdud at 08:30.[213]

Although the Anzac Mounted Division reported on the morning of 10 November that the division was "ridden out" and had to halt for water,[214] the 1st Light Horse Brigade had found water the previous afternoon at el Medjel and so was able to advance to occupy Isdud.[213] However, the 2nd Light Horse Brigade was unable to advance on 10 November because of strong Ottoman rearguards near "New Beit Duras" and Kustine. They spent the day searching for water and watering the brigade, before moving to Hamama at night, to complete watering of the horses.[215]

Summeil

Hovedartikel: Battle of Mughar Ridge#Mounted advance towards Summil.

The 4th Light Horse Brigade was ordered at 10:40 on 10 November to threaten the Ottoman force opposing 3rd Light Horse Brigade on the Menshiye–Al Faluja line.[208][209] Between 08:00 and 10:30, the 3rd Light Horse Brigade had occupied the Arak el Menshiye Station while the 4th Light Horse Brigade entered Al-Faluja 2 miles (3,2 km) to the north-west.[216]

The Australian Mounted Division was joined a few hours later by the Yeomanry Mounted Division which had left Huj early in the morning. They came up on the right of the Australian Mounted Division and took over Arak el Menshiye extending the line a little further east. By the afternoon of 10 November the whole of the Desert Mounted Corps with the exception of the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade, (still at Tel el Khuweilfe) were in line from a point a little east of Arak el Menshiye to the sea.[217][218][Note 14] Both the Australian and Yeomanry Mounted Divisions reconnoitred the eastern half of the Ottoman line running from Qastina, roughly through Balin and Barqusya, to the neighbourhood of Bayt Jibrin in the Judean Hills.[208][209]

Chauvel ordered the Yeomanry Mounted Division to move westward to the coast to support the Anzac Mounted Division, leaving the Australian Mounted Division on the right flank. Neither he nor Hodgson commanding the Australian Mounted Division were aware at that time, that the division was threatened by three or four Ottoman Eighth Army infantry divisions. The 16th and 26th Divisions (XX Corps) and the 53rd Division (XXII Corps) were holding a 6 miles (9,7 km) line between the railway line and Bayt Jibrin, all more or less reorganised and all within striking distance.[219] Ottoman trenches had been dug from Summil 4 miles (6,4 km) north of Arak el Menshiye to Zeita, 3 miles (4,8 km) to the north-east, and to the east of the railway line.[216][220]

With its headquarters at Al-Faluja on 10 and 11 November, the Australian Mounted Division became engaged (during 10 November) in stubborn fighting,[163][209] when the three brigades of the Australian Mounted Division ran into this Ottoman rearguard's left flank near the village of Summil.[221] At 12:55, Ottoman forces were seen advancing from Summil, and the 4th Light Horse Brigade deployed to attack them, with the 3rd Light Horse and the 5th Mounted Brigade in support. By 16:30 3rd Light Horse Brigade headquarters were established 870 yards (800 m) south-east of Al-Faluja on the railway line, but owing to darkness at 17:15 the attack was not developed and night battle outpost lines were established at 20:00.[222] The 4th Light Horse Brigade held a line linking to the Anzac Mounted Division at Beit Affen, while the Ottomans rearguard were holding a ridge near Barqusya with three cavalry troops, three guns and about 1,500 infantry.[208][209]

11 November

The mounted infantry and cavalry brigades of the Australian Mounted Division were unable to advance further on 10 November, due to intense Ottoman artillery fire which continued throughout the day. However, Summil was occupied unopposed, at 06:00 by patrols of the 3rd Light Horse Brigade on 11 November when the place was found to be deserted. However by 09:30 Ottoman units were holding a high ridge 1,5 miles (2,4 km)* north east of the town and Ottoman field guns began shelling Summeil from about 3 miles (4,8 km) away. In the afternoon the brigade carried out active patrolling making themselves as conspicuous as possible without becoming engaged, while the division advanced north.[208][221][222]

Allenby's force was deployed with infantry from the 52nd (Lowland) Division and the 75th Division in the centre, the Australian Mounted Division on their right flank with the Anzac and Yeomanry Mounted Divisions on the infantry's left flank.[223][224] He ordered the 52nd (Lowland) Division to extend their position across the Nahr Sukereir on the Ottoman right flank.[225] And, reinforced with two additional brigades, he ordered the Australian Mounted Division to advance towards Tel es Safi where they encountered a determined and substantial Ottoman counterattack.[226][227] The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade was ordered to rejoin the Anzac Mounted Division on 11 November. They left Beersheba at 16:30 and arrived at Hamama at 23:00 on 12 November.[228][229]

Ottoman line

The 20 miles (32 km)-long defensive line, chosen by the Ottoman commanders to rally their 20,000-strong army and stop the invasion of Southern Palestine, was also designed to protect the Jaffa to Jerusalem railway and Junction Station. Prisoners had been captured from almost every unit of the Ottoman Army, indicating that rearguards had been driven back in on the main body of the Eighth Ottoman army. However, all along their line Ottoman resistance grew noticeably stronger.[230][231][232] Erich von Falkenhayn, commander of the Yildirim Army Group, had decided to make a stand in front of Junction Station, deploying his forces by the evening of 11 November and he ordered a counterattack against the British right flank which was covered by the Australian Mounted Division. His plan was to overwhelm them, cut their supply lines, outflank and capture all the forward units. Originally ordered for 11 November it was postponed until the next day.[233]

12 November

Infantry attack

As part of the preparations for the attack on Junction Station, planned for the next day, the 52nd (Lowland) Division made a preparatory attack near the coast. They were to attack north of the Nahr Sukhereir between the villages of Burqa and Yazur with the Yeomanry Mounted Division acting as flank guard.[225][234][235] Their objective was an important Ottoman rearguard position which ran from the village of Burqa to Brown Hill. While the village was easily taken the steep sided Brown Hill proved an extremely difficult attack. The hill was topped by a large cairn and commanded a long field of fire over the plain southwards across the Nahr Sukhereir.[236] By the time a battalion of the 156th Brigade, covered by two batteries of the 264th Brigade Royal Field Artillery and the South African Field Artillery Brigade of 75th Division captured the crest, the battalion had been reduced to one officer and about 100 men. However, just 20 minutes after their victory, the remnants of the Scots battalion was unable to withstand an Ottoman counterattack and was driven off after a fierce struggle at close quarters.[237]

The 2/3rd Gurkha Rifles were then ordered to renew the attack at dusk. Owing to poor light, the artillery was no longer able to give much assistance, but the Gurkhas quickly retook the hill with a bayonet charge, suffering 50 casualties, and in the process recovering two Lewis guns.[238] The fighting here has been described as equal in intensity to the 157th (Highland Light Infantry) Brigade's assault at Sausage Ridge on 8 November.[239] The success of these operations north of the Nahr Sukhereir opened the way on the Mediterranean coast for the main attacks the following day, on the Ottoman armies' front line positions.[224]

Ottoman counterattack

Map shows the positions of the Australian Mounted Division on 12 November and Ottoman divisions' attacks.
Ottoman counterattack on 12 November 1917

While the infantry attack was in progress, the Australian Mounted Division advanced in the direction of Tel es Safi, to press the left flank of the Ottoman forces as strongly as possible.[240] About 4,000 Australian and British mounted troops of 3rd and 4th Light Horse and 5th Mounted Brigades moved northwards in a conspicuous demonstration of aggression. The Ottoman force appeared at first, to have retired altogether, and the 9th Light Horse Regiment (3rd Light Horse Brigade) was able to ride through Barqusya, with one troop pressing on to occupy Tel es Safi. The 5th Mounted Brigade also found Balin unoccupied, and rapidly advanced northwards towards Tel es Safi and Kustineh. By 12:00 the Australian Mounted Division was spread over at least 6 miles (9,7 km) facing the north and east, when four divisions of the Ottoman Seventh Army (about 5,000 soldiers) began their counterattack.[217][241] Ten minutes later the British Honourable Artillery Company horse artillery battery opened fire, but was hopelessly out shot, outnumbered, and out ranged by Ottoman guns of greater power and weight.[242]

An artillery battery of four guns deployed in the hills
Hong Kong mountain gun battery

The Ottoman infantry divisions were moving south from El Tineh 3 miles (4,8 km) east of Qastina from the Ottoman controlled branch line of the railway line. Here and further north along the railway, trains were arriving with huge numbers of Ottoman soldiers, deployed for the attack in three separate columns (of all arms). They were seen advancing towards Tel es Safi from the north and north-east. Not long afterwards, the 11th Light Horse Regiment (4th Light Horse Brigade) was forced to retire from Qastina, as Ottoman units occupied the place in strength.[243]

The approach of the Eighth Ottoman Army's XX Corps (16th, 26th, 53rd, and 54th Divisions) was at first unknown to the 5th Mounted Brigade in Balin. But at about 13:00 they were attacked by about 5,000 Ottoman soldiers in two columns, one coming down the track from Junction Station to Tel el Safi, and the other arrived by train and marched south from El Tineh Station. The 5th Mounted Brigade, was pushed back out of Balin before they could be reinforced by the 3rd Light Horse Brigade which rode from Summil, followed by two batteries of the Australian Mounted Division. One light horse regiment which managed to occupy Berkusie, was forced to retire by a very strong Ottoman force supported by heavy artillery fire from several batteries. All available troops of the Australian Mounted Division were now engaged, but the Ottoman attack continued to be strongly pressed.[227][244][245] The 4th Light Horse Brigade had been unable to support the 3rd Light Horse or the 5th Mounted Brigades, as they were being heavily attacked on the left of the 5th Mounted Brigade, while holding the line to the west towards Dayr Sunayd railway line. Ottoman units managed to advance to within 100 yards (91 m) of the 4th Light Horse Brigade's position, but were eventually stopped at the end of the day by machine-gun and rifle fire.[246][247]

Hodgson (commander of the Australian Mounted Division) had ordered a slow withdrawal by 3rd Light Horse and 5th Mounted Brigades to high ground on the line Bir Summil–Khurbet Jeladiyeh. The order had only just been given when another Ottoman train was seen moving south. It stopped west of Balin and a fresh force of Ottoman soldiers rapidly deployed to attack the left flank of the 5th Mounted Brigade. Fighting steadily and withdrawing skilfully, the 3rd Light Horse and 5th Mounted Brigades reached the edge of Summil village, where the Ottoman attack was finally held. Two batteries of Australian Mounted Division had come into action on the high ground north-west of Summeil firing on the fresh Ottoman force moving over the open plain in full view of the gunners. Effective EEF artillery fire halted this attacking Ottoman advance, forcing them to fall back a little where they dug trenches. The attack ended at 18:00 in darkness.[247][248] Chauvel's reliance on the steadiness of the Australian Mounted Division was "amply justified."[249] The Yildirim Army Group commander had been forced to halt his Seventh Army's attack, and then to take away from it the 16th Division, plus one regiment.[250] While in their eastern sector, the 3rd Cavalry Division (Seventh Army's III Corps) and 19th Division (Eighth Army) held a line in front of Beit Jibrin.[33][48] This force waited throughout the day, prepared to begin a flank attack, but the opportunity never eventuated.[217][242][251]

13 November

Mughar Ridge

Hovedartikel: Battle of Mughar Ridge.
Detail of Falls Map 9 shows EEF attacks from 12 to 14 November and infantry attack on 13 November
Counter-attack and capture of Junction Station 12–14 November 1917

A 20,000-strong Ottoman force was deployed to defend the Jaffa to Jerusalem railway along the Wadi al-Sarar and Al-Nabi Rubin. They held the prominent 100-foot (30 m) high ridge, which stretched north towards Zernukah and El Kubeibeh dominated the battlefield, which consisted of mainly bare and open cultivated land. This naturally strong ridge formed the backbone of the Ottoman Army's 20-mile (32 km) long defensive position defended by the Eighth Army's 3rd Division (XXII Corps) to the north, the 7th Division (Eighth Army Reserve) to the east, the 54th Division (XX Corps) near el Mesmiye, with the 53rd Division linking to the 26th Division (XX Corps) holding Tel es Safi.[252][253] On the ridge, the villages of Qatra and Al-Maghar had been fortified to become two strong defensive positions, each with commanding views of the countryside. These villages were separated by the Wadi Jamus, which links the Wadi al-Sarar with the Nahr Rubin.[231][232][254]

Photo of mounted rifles brigade crossing a three arched stone bridge.
New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade crossing old crusader bridge at Yibna

Allenby's plan for 13 November was to turn the right flank of the Ottoman line on the coast, despite aircraft and cavalry reconnaissances revealing the large Ottoman force, inland on his right flank facing the Australian Mounted Division. Indeed the division was ordered to make as big a demonstration of their activities, as possible, to focus Ottoman attention away from the coastal sector. Here Allenby planned for the Anzac and Yeomanry Mounted Divisions to advance northwards to attempt to turn the Ottoman right flank, assisted by infantry attacks on the Ottoman right centre.[240][255]

In the centre, the XXI Corps' 52nd (Lowland) and the 75th Divisions were to advance towards Junction Station between the Gaza road on the right, and the village of El Mughar on the left.[234] These infantry attacks were held up by very strong Ottoman defences.[256][257] At Mesmiye the Ottoman Army was strongly deployed on high ground in and near the village, and well-sited machine-guns swept all approaches. However, infantry in the 75th Division made steady slow progress, eventually forcing the main body of the Ottoman rear guard, to fall back to a slight ridge 1 mile (1,6 km) to the north-east. Towards dusk the final stage of the infantry assault was supported by two troops of 11th Light Horse Regiment (4th Light Horse Brigade), who galloped into action on the infantry's right flank and gave valuable fire support. An infantry frontal attack covered by machine-gun fire drove the Ottoman defenders off the ridge, enabling Mesmiye esh Sherqiye to be occupied soon after. Subsequently they halted in darkness not far from Junction Station.[258][259][260]

Detail of Falls Map 9 shows the EEF approaching Junction Station
Capture of Junction Station

On their right flank the Australian Mounted Division's 3rd and 4th Light Horse and 5th Mounted Brigades, reinforced by the 2nd Light Horse Brigade (Anzac Mounted Division), the 7th Mounted Brigade (Yeomanry Mounted Division) and two cars of the 12th Light Armoured Motor Battery, attacked in line advancing northwards towards Junction Station.[261][Note 15] The 4th Light Horse Brigade covering the right flank of the 75th Division, entered Qazaza at 12:00, when the 7th Mounted Brigade on their left, was only ,5 miles (0,80 km)* from Junction Station.[261] By 16:00 the 4th Light Horse Brigade was ordered to push forward to El Tineh as the infantry advance on their left was progressing. It was occupied the following morning.[262]

Map shows El kubeibe, Zernukah, Akir, Yibna, Bashshit and Qatra with Wadi Jamus; 8th Mounted Brigade headquarters, the regiments and machine guns, artillery and field ambulance
Sketch map of Yeomanry charge at El Mughar

On the left flank of the XXI Corps, the remainder of the Desert Mounted Corps; the Anzac and the Yeomanry Mounted Divisions covered the infantry attack, with Yibna as their first objective and Aqir their second.[223] As soon as Junction Station was captured they were to swing north to occupy Ramla and Lod and reconnoitre towards Jaffa.[224] After capturing Yibna, the 8th Mounted Brigade (Yeomanry Mounted Division) continued their advance northwards, to El Kubeibeh and Zernukah.[263] However, the 22nd Mounted Brigade was held up by Ottoman units defending Aqir, while the 6th Mounted Brigade (with the Imperial Camel Brigade covering their northern flank) was directed to attack el Mughar.[264][265]

The 52nd (Lowland) Division had been halted at about 11:30 by heavy shrapnel and machine-gun fire forcing them to the shelter of the Wadi Jamus about 600 yards (550 m) from their objective. Every attempt to leave the wadi was stopped by very heavy fire from well placed Ottoman machine-guns.[266] At about 14:30 it was agreed between the GOC 52nd (Lowland) Division and the GOC Yeomanry Mounted Division that the 6th Mounted Brigade should attack the El Mughar ridge in combination with a renewed infantry assault on Qatra and El Mughar. Half an hour later two mounted regiments, the Royal Buckinghamshire Yeomanry and the Queen's Own Dorset Yeomanry (6th Mounted Brigade), already deployed in the Wadi Jamus, advanced in column of squadrons extended to four paces across 3.000 yards (2,7 km), at first trotting then galloping up and onto the crest of the ridge.[257] The horses were completely exhausted and could not continue the pursuit of the escaping Ottoman units down the far side.[267] However, the Ottoman defenders continued to hold El Mughar village until two squadrons of the Berkshire Yeomanry regiment (6th Mounted Brigade) fighting dismounted, with two battalions of the 52nd (Lowland) Division, renewed the attack.[257][268] Fighting in the village continued until 17:00 when both of the crucial fortified villages of Qatra and El Mughar were captured.[234][269]

14 November

Units of the 75th Division supported by several armoured cars occupied Junction Station during the morning of 14 November, cutting the Ottoman Jaffa to Jerusalem railway.[267][270][271] While the 52nd (Lowland) and 75th Divisions concentrated and reorganised their ranks during the day,[272] the 4th Light Horse Brigade entered El Tineh early in the morning, with the remainder of the Australian Mounted Division following a couple of hours later. Here good wells containing plenty of water were found but without steam pumps, watering was not complete until 16:00.[273][274] Meanwhile, their divisional Supply Train followed, travelling from Beersheba via Hareira and Gaza on 11 November, to reach Isdud on 14 November, then on to Mesymie the next day and Junction Station on 16 November.[275]

Ayun Kara

Ayun Kara attacks
Hovedartikel: Battle of Ayun Kara.

The advance was taken over by the Yeomanry Mounted Division which crossed the railway north of Junction Station, and the Anzac Mounted Division which pressed the retreating Ottoman Army northwards near the coast.[272] The Anzac Mounted Division had been ordered capture Ramleh and Ludd, and cut the only road linking Jaffa to Jerusalem.[276][277] During the morning Meldrum's New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade crossed the Wadi es Surar/Nahr Rubin close to the sand dunes with 1st Light Horse Brigade on its right, and by 09:00 had occupied El Kubeibeh. They pushed on towards the Wadi Hunayn where Ottoman rearguards were encountered in the orange groves and on the hills between El Kubeibeh and the sand dunes.[278] About noon the 1st Light Horse Brigade drove an Ottoman rearguard from a ridge facing Yibna and occupied the village of Rehovot also known as Deiran.[279][280] At the same time the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade (commanded by Brigadier General William Meldrum) ran into a determined and well entrenched Ottoman rearguard near Ayun Kara, which they attacked. Fierce close quarter fighting against the Ottoman 3rd Infantry Division continued during the afternoon.[258][281] Although severely threatened, the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade eventually prevailed and they occupied Jaffa two days later, unopposed.[282] The official New Zealand historian concluded in 1922 that the engagement at Ayun Kara demonstrated the ability of the New Zealand mounted rifles regiments to rapidly attack and reinforce successive positions on horseback. During this intense engagement, the attacking power of the mounted rifle arm, against a strongly entrenched infantry position was comprehensively proven.[283]

15 November 1917

Abu Shusheh, Ludd and Ramleh

In the distance a group of people walk down a dirt road away from the village.
Ramleh after occupation by the EEF

At midnight on 14 November von Falkenhayn ordered a general withdrawal and the Ottoman Seventh Army, which retreated back into the Judean Hills towards Jerusalem, while the Eighth Army was ordered to retreat to the north of Jaffa across the Nahr el Auja about 3 miles (4,8 km) north of Jaffa.[284][285] These Ottoman armies had suffered heavily, and lost between 40–60 miles (64–97 km) of Ottoman territory north of the old Gaza–Beersheba line. These two Ottoman armies left behind 10,000 prisoners of war and 100 guns.[286][287]

The day after the action at Ayun Kara, the 75th Division and the Australian Mounted Division advanced towards Latron where the Jaffa to Jerusalem road enters the Judean Hills, while the Anzac Mounted Division occupied Ramleh and Ludd about 5 miles (8,0 km) north of Junction Station. An Ottoman rearguard above Abu Shusheh blocked the Vale of Ajalon on the right flank of the advance towards Ramleh. The Yeomanry Mounted Division reached the Jerusalem road, after the 6th Mounted Brigade made a cavalry charge, which overwhelmed an Ottoman rearguard position. This charge has been described as even more difficult than that at Mughar Ridge, owing to the rocky nature of the ground over which the horsemen rode.[288][289]

16 November

The pursuit continued as the EEF pushed north, Jaffa was captured by the Anzac Mounted Division in mid–November, and Jerusalem was captured by the XX Corps on 9 December. Desert Mounted Corps alone captured more than 9,000 prisoners and 80 guns before the new front stabilised in the Judean Hills.[290] Seventeen days of operations virtually without rest, had resulted in an advance of between 50 og 60 miles (80 og 97 km) from Beersheba; major and minor engagements occurring on 13 of those days. Most of the mounted units had covered at least 170 miles (270 km) since 29 October 1917 capturing 5,270 prisoners and over 60 guns and about 50 machine-guns.[267][270] Since the advance from Gaza and Beersheba began very heavy casualties and over 10,000 Ottoman prisoners of war and 100 guns had been captured by the Egyptian Expeditionary Force.[291][292]

The EEF had evolved into a "genuinely imperial all–arms force"[293] and the offensive was a "nearly ideal instance of the proper use of all arms in combination."[294]

Jaffa and Latron

New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade accept surrender of Jaffa at town hall

On 16 November Latron was captured and the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade (Anzac Mounted Division) occupied Jaffa, without opposition.[272][295] They administered the city until representatives of the director of Occupied Enemy Territory arrived to take over the job.[296]

Judean Hills 19–24 November

Hovedartikel: Battle of Jerusalem (1917).

Despite not having established a defensive line of entrenchments, Allenby reviewed the threat of counterattack and his supply situation. He decided that a force large enough to attack into the Judean Hills, and another separate force to operate on the maritime plain, could be maintained at an extended distance from base.[297][298][299][300]

On 18 November, while Allenby was at the XXI Corps headquarters at El Kastine, the decision was made to closely follow the Ottoman Seventh Army into the Judean Hills.[301] This decision, to quickly attack Fevzi Pasha's Seventh Army in the Judean Hills, was to keep the pressure on this Ottoman army with the hope of capturing Jerusalem, while denying them time to complete their reorganisation, dig deep trenches or worst of all, counterattack.[297][298][299][300] Two infantry divisions; the 52nd (Lowland) (Major General J. Hill) and the 75th Division,(Major General P. C. Palin), and two mounted divisions; the Yeomanry and the Australian Mounted Divisions, were to begin the advance into the Judean Hills.[301][302] The Ottoman forces they encountered on the road into the hills, were rearguards von Falkenhayn had ordered the XX Corps to establish, as it retired back to defend Jerusalem. Established on commanding ridges, these rearguards were made up of small groups dug in on the hills, each of which were attacked one after the other by Indian and Gurkha troops who outmanoeuvred the Ottoman defenders.[303] "[A]ll the armies that have sought to take Jerusalem have passed this way, save only that of Joshua. Philistine and Hittite, Babylonian and Assyrian, Egyptian and Roman and Greek, Frankish Knights of the Cross, all have passed this way, and all have watered the hill of Amwas with their blood."[304]

Nebi Samwil

After taking over the advance on 19 November, the 75th Division with the Yeomanry Mounted Division on their northern flank, advanced towards Nebi Samwil.[301][304] This fortified and prominent hill 908 meter (2.979 ft) above sea level in the Judean Hills, was the traditional site of the tomb of the Prophet Samuel, was eventually captured late in the evening by the 234th Brigade, 75th Division, after particularly fierce fighting between 21 and 24 December.[305][306][307] They had been supported during this battle by the 52nd (Lowland) Division which had taken the more difficult line, when the 75th Division had been directed to the south western approaches.[305] These two divisions of the XXI Corps commanded by Bulfin had been involved in the extremely successful, but almost continuous fighting advance from 7 November. Their part in this first campaign of manoeuvre has them "advance[ing] in stages and then faltered in the hills around Jerusalem ... [where they were] [d]efeated by the Turkish forces defending Jerusalem" and withdrawn.[308] Here Fevzi's Seventh Army fought them to a standstill.[309]

Mediterranean coast 24–25 November

Nahr el Auja

Se også Se også: Battle of Jaffa (1917).

On 24 November, infantry from the 54th (East Anglian) Division and the Anzac Mounted Division began their attack on the Mediterranean coast, to the north of Jaffa across the Nahr el Auja.[310][311] The northern bank was defended by the Ottoman 3rd and 7th Divisions (Eighth Army).[115]

Two bridgeheads were established by the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade. The first was across the bridge on the main road near Khurbet Hadrah, while the second was established on the coast Sheik Muanis, near the mouth of the river. Their aims were to discourage the Ottoman Eighth Army from transferring troops into the Judean Hills to reinforce the Seventh Army, and to gain territory. The New Zealand Mounted Brigade, and two infantry battalions of the 54th (East Anglian) Division, continued to hold these two bridgeheads on the northern bank, until they were attacked by overwhelming forces on 25 November.[300][312] The 3rd and 7th Divisions of the Ottoman Eighth Army pushed back the bridgeheads and restored their hold on the Nahr el Auja, and the tactical situation.[115]

Relief of XXI Corps and Desert Mounted Corps 24 November to 2 December

On 24 November also, Allenby ordered the relief of the XXI Corps and Desert Mounted Corps by the XX Corps.[311] This relief of the XXI Corps has been described as, "[t]his unnecessary shifting of troops [which] was a time–consuming procedure that delayed Jerusalem's fall ... [due] to the timid nature of the British advance."[308]

Owing to supply problems during the advance from Beersheba, Allenby had left Philip W. Chetwode's XX Corps in the rear close to the lines of communication where they could be easily supplied and refitted. After 10 days rest, these fresh troops were ordered to the front in the Judean Hills to take over the offensive against the Ottoman Seventh Army.[313] On 23 November, the 60th (London) Division, commanded by Major General John Shea, arrived at Latron from Huj and relieved the seriously depleted 52nd (Lowland) and the 75th Divisions, without much of a reduction in fighting ability on 28 November. On the same day, the 74th (Yeomanry) Division, commanded by Major General E. S. Girdwood, arrived at Latron from Karm, and two days later the 10th (Irish) Division, commanded by Major General J. R. Longley, also arrived at Latron from Karm.[313] The movement of such large formations made a pause in the fighting unavoidable, and so the attack was discontinued, but von Falkenhayn and his Ottoman Army took notice of the temporary cessation of hostilities.[314][315]

Ottoman counterattacks 27 November to 1 December

Ottoman counterattacks 1800 28 November 1917

Von Falkenhayn and the Ottoman Army sought to benefit from the weakened and depleted state of the worn out British Empire divisions which had been fighting and advancing since the beginning of the month.[316] During the week beginning 27 November the Ottoman Army launched a series of infantry attacks employing shock tactics in the hope of breaking the British lines during the period of destabilisation created by EEF reinforcements and withdrawals.[316] Counterattacks were launched by the Ottoman 16th and 19th Divisions in the Judean Hills on Nebi Samweil and on the Zeitun plateau. Attacks were also launched against British lines of communication via a gap between the British forces on the maritime plain and those in the Judean Hills and also against several British units spread out on the maritime plain.[317]

Turkish attack the 4th Northamptonshire Regiment at Wilhelma on 27 November 1917

The Ottoman forces on the maritime plain advanced in strength in the region of Wilhelma (a German colony) to attack the 162nd Brigade (54th Division). Here a strong attack was launched against the EEF units holding Wilhelma Station. The attackers also established a strong firing line in the Wadi Rantye. By 17:00 these coordinated attacks had progressed to within 400 yards (370 m) of the British infantry line, where they were held while both flanks of the Ottoman force were attacked and driven in, forcing the attackers back to Rantye.[318] On the left the 54th (East Anglian) Division a company of the 4th Battalion (Imperial Camel Brigade) was attacked at Bald Hill, south of Mulebbis and pushed back 500 yards (460 m) off the hill, which was later targeted by EEF artillery.[319] Also on 27 November, the Yeomanry Mounted Division's advanced post at Zeitun on the western end of the Beitunia Ridge was attacked by a larger Ottoman force. They managed to hold off the attackers until 28 November, when the division was forced to withdraw from Sheik Abu ez Zeitun and Beit Ur el Foqa as well as Zeitun.[320]

On 28 November, the Australian Mounted Division (less the 5th Mounted Yeomanry Brigade) which had been resting at Mejdel from 19 to 27 November, was ordered to return to the Judean Hills. The 4th Light Horse Brigade's march to Berfilya was diverted straight on to Beit Ur el Tahta.[321] When they reached south of Beit Ur el Tahta, the brigade covered a dangerous, isolated position, out of contact with either the 8th or the 6th Mounted Brigades. By nightfall, the line, was held by the 60th (London) Division, the 8th Mounted , the 22nd Mounted, the 7th Mounted, the 156th Brigade, the 155th Brigade, the 4th Light Horse Brigade still out of touch with the 8th and 6th Mounted Brigades.[322] This line was "hard pressed" after night fall when the Ottoman attackers launched a "very fierce bombing attack" reopening a gap in the EEF line.[323] These operations were supported on 28 November by a combined force of the British and Australian Nos. 1 and 111 Squadrons, which attacked the Tul Keram aerodrome with aerial bombing. This attack was repeated the following morning and evening after German planes bombed the Julis aerodrome and hit No. 113 Squadron's orderly room.[324]

Detail of Ottoman counterattack on morning of 28 November 1917

As the Ottoman counterattacks continued on 29 November, the 5th Mounted Yeomanry Brigade was ordered to rejoin its division, while the 10th Light Horse Regiment (3rd Light Horse Brigade) remained under orders of the 60th (London) Division. The 3rd Light Horse Brigade marched on to Berfilya 2 miles (3,2 km) west of el Burj.[325][Note 16] The Yeomanry Mounted Division was relieved by the 74th (Yeomanry) Division; two brigades of infantry were substituted for four brigades of cavalry resulting in a sixfold increase in the number of rifles. With additional reinforcements from the dismounted Australian Mounted Division, these proved sufficient troops to hold all subsequent Ottoman counterattacks.[326]

At about 01:00 on 1 December a battalion of the Ottoman 19th Division, armed with hand grenades, launched a series of attacks at Beit Ur el Tahta against the 157th Brigade, and north east of El Burj against the 3rd Light Horse Brigade.[327] After two attempts at Beit Ur el Tahta, they succeeded in driving a severely weakened infantry company of the 5th Battalion, Highland Light Infantry, 52nd (Lowland) Division, off 200 yards (180 m) of the ridge in front of the village, but by 04:30 they had reoccupied the position. The 8th Light Horse Regiment north east of El Burj withstood four separate onslaughts by enemy forces armed with stick grenades. A squadron of the Royal Gloucestershire Hussars of the 5th Mounted Yeomanry Brigade, attached to the 3rd Light Horse Brigade was rushed up to fill gaps in the line, and the Hong Kong Battery came into action. They were reinforced by the 4th Battalion, Royal Scots Fusiliers with a small group of bombers from Beit Sira, which arrived just as Ottoman soldiers launched a new assault. The British bombing party attacked Ottoman bombers and after a fierce engagement forced them back. The Ottomans continued desperately to attack and another company of the 4th Scots Fusiliers came up. Combined with the steady fire of the dismounted 3rd Light Horse Brigade, the shower of bombs from the Fusiliers forced the Ottoman soldiers to fall back and dig in. At dawn they surrendered.[328][Note 17] Ottoman counterattacks launched at Nebi Samwill on 1 December were repulsed, with the Ottoman Seventh Army suffering heavy losses.[329] The Ottoman Army had failed to win any ground as a result of their counterattacks, and the advancing British troops were successfully replacing the worn out XXI Corps, holding well entrenched positions close to Jerusalem, with the fresh XX Corps.[330]

Jerusalem 2–9 December

By 2 December the relief of the XXI Corps by the XX Corps was completed.[329][331] And both side began to adjust and improve their lines, leaving insecure or hard to defend places. The fresh EEF soldiers increased the strength of their line, creating a powerful concentration. Over four days the 10th (Irish) and 74th (Yeomanry) Divisions extended their positions, while the extended position held by the 60th (London) Division was decreased.[330][332] Although it is claimed that on 3 December the Ottoman Army had abandoned their counterattacks and that fighting in the Judean Hills ceased,[316][331] as a consequence of units of the 74th (Yeomanry) Division recapturing Beit Ur el Foqa, during a night time attack,[333] the position was impossible to hold. At daylight they found they were overlooked by Ottoman positions on higher ground. Bombing and hand-to-hand fighting continued all morning, and the Yeomanry infantry battalion was forced to withdraw, suffering 300 casualties.[331]

Mott's Detachment

The 53rd (Welsh) Division (XX Corps), with the Corps Cavalry Regiment and a heavy battery attached, remained on the Hebron road north of Beersheba, after that place was captured on 31 October and during the advance up the maritime plain. Now they came under direct orders from General Headquarters (GHQ) and became known as Mott's Detachment.[313] The detachment was ordered to advance north along the Beersheba to Jerusalem road and by 4 December had arrived 4,5 miles (7,2 km)* south of Hebron. Here two Australian light armoured cars from a Light Armoured Motor Battery (LAMB), drove in from the north. They reported no Ottoman units in Hebron, so the detachment continued their advance to the Dilbe valley that night.[334][335][Note 18]

An armoured car showing the driver standing beside the car, passenger sitting in the car with a machine gun and gunner.
A Model T Ford Utility with a Vickers .303 machine gun mounted on a tripod

Chetwode commanding XX Corps, ordered Mott to advance as quickly as possible and get into a position 3 miles (4,8 km) south of Jerusalem, by the morning of 8 December. Mott's advanced guard moved tentatively during the night of 5 December to 3 miles (4,8 km) north of Hebron,[336] and by 7 December had come finally found an Ottoman rearguard defending Bethlehem 4 miles (6,4 km) from his objective. Bad weather prevented the advance continuing.[337] So Mott's Detachment was not able to cut the road from Jerusalem to Jericho, and get into position in time to cover the right flank of the 60th (London) Division,[338] although Mott managed to capture Solomon's Pools to the south of Bethlehem by the evening of 7 December.[339]

City buildings, some with people looking down from roofs, people and soldiers in a large square, with motor car in foreground
The 4th Battalion, Sussex Regiment march through Bethlehem. Their infantry division, the 53rd (Welsh) Division, occupied Bethlehem on the night of 9 December

About noon on 8 December, Chetwode ordered the detachment to get moving. Mott finally attacked his main objective at Beit Jala at 16:00.[313][340] It was not until the evening that they continued their advanced to find the way completely clear of Ottoman defenders. At the crucial moment, Mott's Detachment had been unable to cover the southern flank of the 60th (London) Division, forcing the Londoners to pause during daylight, as enfilading fire would have made their advance extremely costly.[341]

Surrender

The surrender of Jerusalem to the British, 9 December 1917

During almost continuous rain on 8 December, Jerusalem ceased to be protected by the Ottoman Empire.[342][343] At the same time Chetwode launched the final advance taking the heights to the west of the city.[342] The Ottoman Seventh Army retreated during the evening and the city surrendered the following day.[344] Jerusalem was almost encircled by the EEF, although Ottoman Army units briefly held the Mount of Olives on 9 December. They were attacked by units of the 60th (London) Division which captured the position the following afternoon.[345]

Casualties

From 31 October to the capture of Jerusalem the Ottoman armies suffered 25,000 casualties.[346]

A total of 14,393 battle casualties were evacuated to Egypt from the EEF along with 739 Australians during October and November 1917. These Australian wounded were mainly treated in the 1,040 beds of No. 14 Australian General Hospital at the Abbassia Barracks, Cairo. Here 754 surgical cases, the heaviest battle casualties admissions of the Sinai and Palestine campaign, were admitted during November. These had been evacuated by ambulance trains from the British casualty clearing stations at Deir el Belah and Imara. During the same period it received 720 medical cases, which rapidly increased during the following months.[347]

Aftermath

Capture of Arsuf 20–21 December

Hovedartikel: Battle of Jaffa (1917).
Falls' Sketch Map 20 Passage of the Nahr el 'Auja

Allenby planned to establish a defensive line running from the Mediterranean Sea to the Dead Sea. With both flanks secured, the line could be held with reasonable security.[348] In order to establish this line, it was necessary to push the 3rd and 7th Infantry Divisions of the Ottoman Eighth Army back away from the Nahr el Auja 4 miles (6,4 km) north of Jaffa on the Mediterranean coast.[115] After the first attempt between 24 to 25 November, this second attempt in the same area was officially designated a subsidiary battle during the Jerusalem Operations.[349] One historian thought these operations "hardly merit in size or importance the name 'Battle of Jaffa'."[350] Now, three infantry divisions of the XXI Corps began moving their units into position on the coastal plain on 7 December. The 75th Division was on the right with the 54th (East Anglian) Division in the centre and the 52nd (Lowland) Division on the coast.[351][352] They relieved the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade, which had been heavily involved in the first attempt to capture the Nahr el Auja, fought shortly after their victory at the Battle of Ayun Kara.[353]

Military operations resumed a fortnight after the surrender of Jerusalem with the final EEF attack of this campaign.[354] Preparations were, however, complicated by the sodden state of the low and swampy ground on the southern banks of the Nahr el Auja where the attack would be launched, and the river was swollen by rain which had fallen on 19 and 20 December. From Mulebbis to the sea the river was between 40–50 feet (12–15 m) wide and 10–12 feet (3,0–3,7 m) deep except for the ford at the mouth known as Sheik Muanis. To the north of the river two prominent spurs ran down to the river from a series of sandy ridges. These overlooked the damaged stone bridge at Khurbet Hadrah to the east and the village of Sheik Muannis, near Jerisheh to the west where a mill dam bridged the stream.[355][356] The Ottoman Eighth Army held strong commanding positions covering all the possible crossing places which had been used by the attackers in November. They held both spurs in addition to a post opposite the ford at the mouth of the Nahr el Auja. They also held a line extending east of Khurbet Hadrah which crossed to the south bank of the river to include Bald Hill and Mulebbis.[352]

All three infantry brigades of the 52nd (Lowland) Division managed to cross the River Auja on the night of 20/21 December, completely surprising the defenders who surrendered without firing a shot.[355][357] Temporary bridges were subsequently built so the infantry's artillery could cross the river. On 23 December the 52nd (Lowland) and 54th (East Anglian) Divisions moved up the coast a further 5 miles (8,0 km), while the left of the advance reached Arsuf 8 miles (13 km) north of Jaffa, capturing key Ottoman defensive positions. They were supported by guns on warships.[358] Shortly afterwards, the 52nd (Lowland) Division was ordered to France.[359]

Defence of Jerusalem 26–30 December

Officially recognised by the British as one of three battles which made up the "Jerusalem Operations", this Ottoman attack occurred between 26 and 30 December 1917.[349] The 10th (Irish), the 60th (London), and the 74th (Yeomanry) Divisions with support from infantry in the 53rd (Welsh) Division (XX Corps) fought the Seventh Ottoman Army's 24th, 26th and 53rd Divisions (III Corps).[360]

Falls' Sketch Map 21: Defence of Jerusalem. Situation on 30 December 1917 at 1800
Dead Ottoman soldiers at Tel el Ful in 1917

After the Ottoman evacuation, Jerusalem remained within range of Ottoman artillery, and with the opposing sides in such close proximity, there was still the risk of counterattack. An offensive to push the Ottoman Army further northwards away from the city was planned for 24 December 1917, but was delayed due to bad weather.[361] So the EEF was prepared for battle when the Ottoman Army launched their counterattack at 01:30 on 27 December. This fell on units of the 60th (London) Division holding the Nablus road.[362][363] The initial objective of the Ottoman attack, was a line of villages, including Nebi Samweil 1 mile (1,6 km) in front of their starting positions.[364] Their focus was towards Tell el Ful, a hill east of the Nablus road about 3 miles (4,8 km) north of Jerusalem defended by the 60th (London) Division. This Ottoman attack on Tell el Ful initially drove the British outposts back and captured several important places. However, the engagement continued for two days and was ultimately unsuccessful.[362] A general EEF infantry advance on a 12-mile (19 km) front moved their front line 6 miles (9,7 km) northwards on the right and 3 miles (4,8 km) on the left.[365] They pushed the whole line along the Nablus road to beyond Ramallah and Bireh by 30 December.[362][366] Final objectives were gained and the line along the whole front secured.[367] In the middle of February 1918 the line was extended eastwards to Jericho in the Jordan Valley, when it was finally secured on the Dead Sea.[368]

Summation of offensive

Jaffa to Jerusalem train climbing the Judean hills east of Lydda in 1947

The EEF had evolved into a "genuinely imperial all–arms force"[293] and the offensive was a "nearly ideal instance of the proper use of all arms in combination."[294] The scale of the enormous territorial gains of the Southern Palestine offensive, contrasted with the British offensive on the Western Front at Cambrai. Fought in Flanders from 20 to 30 November, it ended with heavy losses and no territorial gains. The French army was still recovering from a serious mutiny, while the Italians were defeated at the Battle of Caporetto, and Russia was out of the war following the Bolshevik Revolution. Allenby's advance by comparison made considerable territorial gains, helped secure Baghdad and the oilfields at Basra in Mesopotamia, encouraged the Arab Revolt, and inflicted irreplaceable losses on the Ottoman Army.[357] These substantial victories of the EEF's campaign from October to December 1917 resulted in the first military defeat of a Central Power, which led to a substantial loss of enemy territory. In particular the fighting from 31 October to 7 November against the Ottoman Gaza–Sheria–Beersheba line resulted in the first defeat of strongly entrenched, experienced and, up until then, successful Ottoman armies which were supported by artillery, machine guns and aircraft.[369]

Footnotes

Notes

  1. ^ 19. og 24. division ankom inden slagene om Gaza-Beersheba linjen, 20. division ankom i tide til forsvaret af Jerusalem, 48. division ankom kort efter tabet af Jerusalem. 42. division nåede først frem til Syrien i sommeren 1918, og 50. og 59. division blev opløst, formentlig i Aleppo og tropperne sendt til Mesopotamien og Palæstina som forstærkninger. [Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 24]
  2. ^ Baseret på en rapport fra 11. november 1917 fra major Pardoe med titlen "Turkish Machine Gun Defences and Emplacements" er det blevet hævdet, at "Gazas forsvarsstillinger var så svage, at Allenby burde have koncentreret sit kavaleri ved Gaza og foretaget sit hovedangreb her, og ignoreret eller højest have foretaget et afledningsangreb mod Beersheba." [Hughes 1999 p. 50]
  3. ^ Disse tal omtaler ikke maskingeværer. [Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 35]
  4. ^ Nominally Army Troops. [Keogh 1955 p. 135]
  5. ^ Halvdelen af brigaderne i det beredne ørkenkorps var lette beredne og beredne riffelbrigader, som kun var bevæbnet med rifler og bajonetter. [Keogh 1955 pp. 125–6]
  6. ^ Det er blevet hævdet, at ekspeditionsstyrken havde 17.000 sabler mens det osmanniske kavaleri kun havde 1.500. [Young 1986 pp. 2390–1] Antallet af maskingeværer er ikke medtaget i kilderne.
  7. ^ Erickson overser felttoget i Sinai og Palæstina. 52. division kæmpede i slaget ved Romani på Sinaihalvøen og Første og Andet slag om Gaza, 53. og 54. division kæmpede i første og andet slag om Gaza, mens den beredne Anzac division kæmpede ved Romani, Magdhaba, [[slaget ved Rafah|Rafah], første og andet slag om Gaza.
  8. ^ Infanteriet angreb vest fra. [Falls 1930 Vol. 2 sketch map 1 Situation at 18:00 28 October 1917]
  9. ^ Returneringen af den beredne australske division for at vande ved Karm er blevet beskrevet som en negering af "hele formålet med flankeringsoperationen ... forsøget på at afskære fjendens styrker var slået fejl" på grund af forsinkelser som følge af vanskeligheder med vand. [Hughes 1999 p. 57]
  10. ^ Also on 2 November the British Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour sent a letter to the most prominent Jew in Britain, Baron Rothschild a wealthy banker and head of the British branch of European Jewish causes. The letter known as the Balfour Declaration, proposed a national home for the Jewish People in Palestine, was published in The Times on 9 November 1917. [Grainger 2006 p. 178]
  11. ^ Wavell is probably including both the 5th and 7th Mounted Brigades and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade which did not rejoin Desert Mounted Corps from Tel el Khuweilfe until 12 November, two days after the Yeomanry Mounted Division. [Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 124]
  12. ^ Chauvel has been criticised for not ordering the Australian Mounted Division to join the Anzac Mounted Division's advance which would have placed the 4th Light Horse Brigade in a position to make the Charge at Sheria from the flank. [Baly 2003 p. 125]
  13. ^ The average number of times Desert Mounted Corps horses were watered during the advance was once every 36 hours. [Preston 1921 p. 316]
  14. ^ Desert Mounted Corps was less the Anzac Mounted Division. [Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 143]
  15. ^ Although Falls Map 9 shows the 3rd Light Horse Brigade on the left of the 155th Brigade near Yebna on 13 November and south of Summil on 12 November, this light horse brigade's War Diary confirms the brigade remained with its division, on the right of the main attack. [3rd Light Horse Brigade War Diary November 1917 AWM4-10-3-34]
  16. ^ A quarter of the men of these light horse brigades took the horses to the rear. Each man had four horses to look after day and night and as these "led horses" were prime targets for aerial bombing, it was both solid and dangerous work.[Hamilton 1996, p. 91]
  17. ^ One Scotsman furiously roared as he hurled one Mills grenade after another: "They mairched us a hunnder miles! (Tak' that, ya ...!) An' we've been in five fechts! (Anither yin, ya ... !) And they said we wur relieved! (Tak' that, ya ...!) And we're ott oor beds anither nicht! (Swalla that, ya ...!)." [quoted in Woodward 2006, pp. 145–6]
  18. ^ A Light Car Patrol raided Beit Jibrin and Beit Netief, and the Wadi es Sunt. Unable to retire, they drove on towards Solomon's Pools and south to Hebron and on towards Beersheba. [Powles pp. 166–7]

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  358. ^ Bruce 2002, pp. 167–8
  359. ^ Wavell 1968, p. 170
  360. ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 Sketch Map 21
  361. ^ Bruce 2002, p. 168
  362. ^ a b c Keogh 1955, p. 186
  363. ^ Woodward 2006, p. 152
  364. ^ Grainger 2006, pp. 222–3
  365. ^ Bruce 2002 p. 169
  366. ^ Grainger 2006 p. 223
  367. ^ Wavell 1968 pp 171–2
  368. ^ Jerusalem Memorial 1928, p. 10
  369. ^ Grainger 2006, p. 230

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Skabelon:World War I

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